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PubMed1981

Production of Naphthoquinone Mycotoxins and Taxonomy of Penicillium viridicatum.

Groups I and II of Penicillium viridicatum were further differentiated on the basis of synthesis of two mycotoxins, xanthomegnin and viomellein. Strains previously classified as group II produced these pigments, whereas those in group I did not. These napthoquinone pigments were quantitated by thin-layer chromatography and high-pressure liquid chromatography. A new mobile phase of toluene and acetic acid effected a baseline separation of the two components. It is proposed that such biochemical distinctions be incorporated into an artificial taxonomic scheme of use to nontaxonomists.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1984

Mutagenicity of tetramic mycotoxin cyclopiazonic acid.

Cyclopiazonic acid was shown to be mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 in the presence of metabolic activation. The activity of cyclopiazonic acid in the presence of aflatoxin B1 was studied in complete factorial experiments with strain TA98. Both mycotoxins produced significant mutagenic activity and in combination. The activity in combination appeared to be additive rather than synergistic. The specific activity of cyclopiazonic acid was estimated to be approximately 140 revertants per mu mol in strain TA98.

Aflatoxin B1↗

PubMed1984

Identification of swainsonine as a probable contributory mycotoxin in moldy forage mycotoxicoses.

When infested with the fungus Rhizoctonia leguminicola, certain forages, e.g., red clover hay, can cause a "slobber syndrome" of varying severity when consumed by ruminants. The causative agent has been presumed to be slaframine [(1S,6S,8aS)-1-acetoxy-6-aminooctahydroindolizine], which is produced by R. leguminicola. In one serious outbreak of the slobber syndrome in horses, the red clover forage involved was carefully examined and found to contain R. leguminicola and slaframine. An identical hay sample is shown here by ion-exchange chromatographic and gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis of appropriate hay extracts to also contain swainsonine [(1S,2R,8R,8aR)-1,2,8-trihydroxyoctahydroindolizine], a potent alpha-mannosidase inhibitor. Swainsonine has previously been isolated from pure cultures of R. leguminicola and from higher plants, namely the Darling pea (Swainsona canescens) and spotted locoweed (Astragalus lentiginosus). Consumption of Darling pea and spotted locoweed by livestock results in a severe neurological condition resembling that observed in hereditary mannosidosis in cattle and humans. Our findings indicate that swainsonine may be viewed as a mycotoxin when present in moldy forages consumed by livestock. The extent to which slaframine and swainsonine mycotoxicosis pose threats to animal husbandry and, indeed, to humans, if these alkaloids were to enter the human food chain, deserves serious consideration.

Alkaloids↗

PubMed1985

Preparation and characterization of monoclonal antibodies to the trichothecene mycotoxin T-2.

Two mouse immunoglobulin G1 monoclonal antibodies that bind to the trichothecene mycotoxin T-2 were prepared. These antibodies, designated 12C12 and 15H6, had affinities for T-2 of 3.5 X 10(6) and 5.8 X 10(7) liters/mol, respectively. A competitive inhibition enzyme immunoassay that employed these antibodies had a sensitivity for T-2 of 50 ng per assay. Both antibodies bound to the metabolite HT-2 but not to the related trichothecenes monoacetoxyscirpenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, deoxynivalenol, and deoxyverrucarol. Evidence is presented that T-2-protein conjugates inhibit protein synthesis in lymphoid cells and that this apparent immunotoxicity may be due to the release of T-2 from the protein carrier.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the mycotoxin zearalenone.

A competitive indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed for the detection of zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin. Zearalenone was converted to zearalenone-6'-carboxymethyloxime and conjugated to bovine serum albumin and poly-L-lysine for use as immunogen and solid-phase marker, respectively. Immunization of rabbits with the bovine serum albumin conjugate resulted in zearalenone antibody titers of 20,480 in 11 weeks. A competitive indirect ELISA was conducted by simultaneously incubating zearalenone with zearalenone antiserum over zearalenone-6'-carboxymethyloxime poly-L-lysine solid phase and then determining the bound rabbit immunoglobulin with goat anti-rabbit peroxidase conjugate. Response range for zearalenone in the resulting competition curve was between 1 and 50 ng/ml. Reactivities of this antiserum for alpha-zearalenol, beta-zearalenol, alpha-zearalanol, and beta-zearalanol were, respectively, 50, 12, 6, and 3% of that found for zearalenone. By using the competitive indirect ELISA, zearalenone was detectable in methanol-water extracts of corn, wheat, and pig feed samples.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1991

Immunochemical assessment of mycotoxins in 1989 grain foods: evidence for deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin) contamination.

To assess the potential for mycotoxin contamination of the human food supply following the 1988 U.S. drought, 92 grain food samples were purchased from retail outlets in the summer of 1989 and surveyed for aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol (DON [vomitoxin]) by monoclonal antibody-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Only one sample (buckwheat flour) was found to contain aflatoxin B1 (12 ng/g), whereas zearalenone was found in 26% of the samples at a mean concentration of 19 ng/g. In contrast, the DON ELISA was positive in 50% of the samples at a detection level of 1.0 micrograms/g. Between 63 and 88% of corn cereals, wheat flour/muffin mixes, rice cereals, and corn meal/muffin mixes yielded positive results for DON, whereas 25 to 50% of oat cereals, wheat- and oat-based cookies/crackers, corn chips, popcorn, and mixed-grain cereals were positive for DON. The mean DON content of the positive samples was 4.0 micrograms/g, and the minimum and maximum levels were 1.2 and 19 micrograms/g, respectively. When positive ELISA samples were also analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography, a strong correlation between the two methods was found. The presence of DON in the two highest samples, corn meal and mixed-grain cereal, which contained 19 and 16 micrograms/g, respectively, was quantitatively confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results indicated that DON was present in 1989 retail food products at concentrations that exceeded those found in previous market surveys and that have been experimentally associated with impaired animal health.

Aflatoxin B1↗

PubMed1992

Production of the Mycotoxin Fumonisin B(1) by Alternaria alternata f. sp. lycopersici.

The mycotoxin fumonisin B(1), originally described as being produced by Fusarium moniliforme, was detected in liquid cultures of Alternaria alternata f. sp. lycopersici, a host-specific pathogen of tomato plants. The metabolite was detected by high-pressure liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Its identity was confirmed by fast atom bombardment and ion spray mass spectrometry, as well as parent-daughter tandem mass spectrometry. In three separate experiments, the concentrations found ranged between 5 and 140 ppm (mug/ml).

Journal Article↗

PubMed1993

Thermostability of Fumonisin B(1), a Mycotoxin from Fusarium moniliforme, in Corn.

Fumonisin B(1) (FB(1)) is a mycotoxin from Fusarium moniliforme that is frequently associated with corn. Thermal treatments are used in many processes concerning this cereal and its derivatives. The thermostability of this toxin in dry contaminated corn, resulting from F. moniliforme culture, was studied in different time-temperature combinations. FB(1) was quantified by instrumentalized thin-layer chromatography after a two-step sequential development and postchromatographic derivatization by p-anisaldehyde. The identity of FB(1) in extracts, before and after heat treatments, was confirmed by high-pressure liquid chromatography. For each temperature, the natural logarithm of the ratio of resulting FB(1) on initial content (In C/C(0)) is linearly correlated to exposure time. The calculated half-lives (L(50)), corresponding to the 50% value, were 10 min, 38 min, 175 min, and 8 h at 150, 125, 100, and 75 degrees C, respectively. There is a linear relationship between calculated L(50)s on a logarithmic scale and temperature. Therefore FB(1) is not significantly destroyed by the main drying processes of corn or thermal treatments used for its derivatives. Other associated means are required for detoxification.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2003

Tri16 is required for esterification of position C-8 during trichothecene mycotoxin production by Fusarium sporotrichioides.

We previously characterized Tri1, a gene required for hydroxylation of the C-8 position during trichothecene mycotoxin biosynthesis in Fusarium sporotrichioides NRRL 3299. Sequence analysis of the region surrounding Tri1 revealed a gene, named Tri16, which could encode an acyltransferase. Unlike the wild-type parent strain NRRL 3299, which accumulates primarily T-2 toxin along with low levels of diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and neosolaniol (NEO) and trace amounts of 8-propionyl-neosolaniol (P-NEO) and 8-isobutyryl-neosolaniol (B-NEO), mutants containing a disruption of Tri16 were blocked in the production of the three C-8 esterified compounds T-2 toxin, P-NEO, and B-NEO and accumulated the C-8-hydroxylated compound NEO along with secondary levels of DAS. These data indicate that Tri16 encodes an acyltransferase that catalyzes the formation of ester side groups at C-8 during trichothecene biosynthesis. We also report the presence of a Tri16 ortholog in Gibberella pulicaris R-6380 that is likely linked to a presumably inactive ortholog for Tri1.

Acyltransferases↗

PubMed2003

Identification of new genes positively regulated by Tri10 and a regulatory network for trichothecene mycotoxin production.

Tri10, a regulatory gene in trichothecene mycotoxin-producing Fusarium species, is required for trichothecene biosynthesis and the coordinated expression of four trichothecene pathway-specific genes (Tri4, Tri5, Tri6, and Tri101) and the isoprenoid biosynthetic gene for farnesyl pyrophosphate synthetase (FPPS). We showed that six more trichothecene genes (Tri3, Tri7, Tri8, Tri9, Tri11, and Tri12) are regulated by Tri10. We also constructed a cDNA library from a strain of Fusarium sporotrichioides that overexpresses Tri10 ( upward arrow Tri10) and used cDNA derived from the upward arrow Tri10 strain and a non-Tri10-expressing strain (DeltaTri10) to differentially screen macroarrays prepared from the cDNA library. This screen identified 15 additional Tri10-regulated transcripts. Four of these transcripts represent Tri1, Tri13, and Tri14 and a gene designated Tri15. Three other sequences are putative orthologs of genes for isoprenoid biosynthesis, the primary metabolic pathway preceding trichothecene biosynthesis. The remaining eight sequences have been designated Ibt (influenced by Tri10) genes. Of the 26 transcripts now known to be positively regulated by Tri10, 22 are positively coregulated by Tri6, a gene that encodes a previously characterized trichothecene pathway-specific transcription factor. These 22 Tri10- and Tri6-coregulated sequences include all of the known Tri genes (except for Tri10), the FPPS gene, and the other three putative isoprenoid biosynthetic genes. Tri6 also regulates a transcript that is not regulated by Tri10. Thus, Tri10 and Tri6 regulate overlapping sets of genes that include a common group of multiple genes for both primary and secondary metabolism.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed1993

The production of polyclonal antibodies against the mycotoxin derivative patulin hemiglutarate.

The mycotoxin patulin is a toxic, carcinogenic, unsaturated lactone produced by a number of molds. Polyclonal antibodies against patulin hemiglutarate were produced. Specific antibodies against patulin alone, however, were not clearly demonstrated. Because of its low molecular weight, patulin required conjugation to bovine serum albumin (BSA) to increase its immunogenicity. Anti-patulin-hemiglutarate-BSA antibody titer and specificity were determined using indirect and indirect competitive ELISA, respectively. Immunoassays would facilitate detection and quantitation of patulin.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Ochratoxin A: an important western Canadian storage mycotoxin.

Ochratoxin A (OA) is a mycotoxin produced by certain species of storage fungi of the Penicillium and Aspergillus genera. Toxin production by these fungi is influenced by species and even strain of fungi, time and temperature of incubation, moisture content of substrate, and type of substrate. OA has been shown to occur in various grains, cereals and other plant products, animal feeds, meats, and human tissues in countries throughout the world. Of interest is the discovery of OA in a high percentage of blood from humans in Germany. OA is acutely toxic to many different animals and in addition to being a nephrotoxin, it is a hepatotoxin, a teratogen, a very potent carcinogen, possibly a mutagen, and an immunosuppressive agent. OA is rapidly absorbed throughout the entire gastrointestinal tract and distributes itself in the body as a two-compartment open model and has a particular high affinity for serum albumin. OA is hydrolyzed by the intestinal microflora into nontoxic compounds (7-carboxy-5-chloro-8-hydroxy-3,4-dihydro-3R-methylisocoumarin (O alpha) and phenylalanine). It is excreted as either OA, hydroxylated OA, or O alpha in both the urine and feces. OA appears to exert its toxic effect by promoting an increased level of lipid peroxidation, by inhibition of an amino acylation reaction, and possibly by conversion into metabolites that are capable of binding DNA. These in turn cause other secondary effects associated with OA. It would appear that this compound presents a true potential hazard for humans as its occurrence is wide spread and it is highly carcinogenic.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed1993

Acute renal failure from inhalation of mycotoxins.

Mysterious deaths of archeologists after opening Egyptian tombs have been suspected to be secondary to inhalation of mycotoxin, however, the hypothesis has never been verified. Recently, we observed a case of acute renal failure (ARF) undeniably due to inhalation of ochratoxin of Aspergillus ochraceus. After spending 8 h in a granary which had been closed for several months, a farmer and his wife suffered temporary respiratory distress; 24 h later, the woman developed nonoliguric ARF and biopsy revealed tubulonecrosis which healed in 24 days. Toxic substances were not found, but a strain of A. ochraceus producing ochratoxin was isolated from the wheat.

Acute Kidney Injury↗

PubMed1995

In situ mycotoxin production by Candida albicans in women with vaginitis.

The virulence attributes of Candida albicans in cases of mucocutaneous disease have not been identified. Based on the recent finding that C. albicans is able to produce an immunosuppressive mycotoxin, gliotoxin, we analyzed vaginal samples of 3 women severely symptomatic for vaginal candidiasis and found that they contained significant levels of gliotoxin. Three control women who were not colonized with C. albicans showed no gliotoxin in vaginal samples. These findings raise the possibility that gliotoxin may play a role in the virulence of C. albicans.

Candida albicans↗

PubMed1986

T-2 mycotoxin intensifies iodine deficiency in mice fed low iodine diet.

Mice were depleted of iodine and fed a 125I-labeled low iodine diet. After they developed isotopic equilibrium they were given T-2 mycotoxin, in doses 34% to 14% of LD50/day for 4 to 12 days. In all cases T-2 toxin caused loss of thyroid iodine from which the animals recovered when the T-2 toxin was stopped. When iodine intake was adequate, the T-2 toxin had no statistically significant effect on the thyroid iodine content. Since T-2 toxin is known to block the initiation of some protein synthesis, it may block thyroglobulin synthesis, and, in stimulated thyroids, limited hydrolysis may continue. Therefore, when the thyroids were stimulated and thyroglobulin was depleted, a blockade of thyroglobulin synthesis may have caused further depletion of thyroidal iodine.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

Studies on mechanisms of diarrhea induced by fusarenon-X, a trichothecene mycotoxin from Fusarium species; characteristics of increased intestinal absorption rate induced by fusarenon-X.

Fusarenon-X (F-X) is one of the trichothecene mycotoxins. F-X enhanced D-xylose absorption rate in rat everted intestinal sac. In the present work, the mechanism of the F-X-induced enhancement of intestinal D-xylose absorption rate was studied. F-X had no detectable effect on D-glucose absorption of everted rat intestine. When 10 mM of D-xylose was employed, a concomitant application of oxygen-free condition and low temperature failed to affect the D-xylose absorption of normal rat, but inhibited that of F-X-treated rat. When D-glucose concentration was 5 mM, the concomitant application of oxygen-free condition and low temperature depressed the D-glucose absorption of normal rat, while it did not reduce that in F-X-treated rat. These results suggested that the sugar translocation mechanism of F-X-treated rat intestine was different from that of normal one. F-X-induced enhancement of D-xylose absorption in everted intestinal sac may depend on the increase in permeability of the intestinal membrane which is derived from the histological and functional damage of the intestinal mucosa induced by F-X.

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Central effects of the neurotropic mycotoxin fumitremorgin A in the rabbit (I). Effects on the spinal cord.

Effects of a potent neurotropic mycotoxin, fumitremorgin A (FTA), on the spinal cord were studied, using rabbits lightly anesthetized with urethane and chloralose. Spontaneous discharges of L7 spinal ventral roots and common peroneal nerves were increased after intravenous injection of 100-200 micrograms/kg of FTA. Their abnormal discharge pattern represented the convulsive effect of FTA. Spinal monosynaptic reflexes became irregular in amplitude, with a slight predominance of smaller reflexes. Polysynaptic reflexes were inhibited in many cases. These FTA-induced changes in ventral root discharges and spinal reflexes were abolished by spinal transection at a segment of the upper level. These results suggest that FTA may have no direct facilitatory action on spinal motoneurons and that its remarkable motor effect has its origin in the supraspinal central nervous system.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Biotransformation of the mycotoxin, zearalenone, to a non-estrogenic compound by a fungal strain of Clonostachys sp.

Zearalenones are mycotoxins with estrogenic activity consisting of a resorcinol moiety fused to a 14-membered macrocyclic lactone and are produced by various Fusarium species. We found that Clonostachys rosea IFO 7063 was effectively capable of converting zearalenone (1) to cleavage product (2), 1-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-10'-hydroxy-1'E-undecene-6'-one. Moreover, cleavage product 2 did not show potent estrogenic activity like that of 1 and 17beta-estradiol in the human breast cancer MCF-7 cell proliferation assay.

Ascomycota↗