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PubMed1994

Guidelines for clinical practice: applications for primary care.

Practice guidelines can make considerable contributions to several areas of health care delivery. Perhaps their greatest promise lies in the area of assessing and improving the quality of health care and health outcomes; secondarily, they may help to rationalize the overall use of health services and thus be a partial means to controlling the use of services and costs of care. Work at the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences in the United States has (a) suggested eight characteristics of good guidelines; (b) building on those, pointed the way to methods for developing and assessing guidelines; and (c) shown how sound and realistic guidelines can contribute to better ways to measure and improve the quality of primary medical care. This paper discusses four questions: (1) what are guidelines, and how might they relate to or be of benefit to primary care and family medicine? (2) What criteria or principles should be used to create good practice guidelines? (3) What problems or pitfalls need to be anticipated in developing and disseminating guidelines? (4) In what ways can guidelines help improve the quality of health care, especially through quality assurance and improvement and utilization and cost management? Practice guidelines will not be a quick or painless strategy for improving the quality and value of health care, but unprecedented opportunities lie ahead for physicians in primary care.

Cost Control↗

PubMed1997

The use of clinical guidelines to improve medical practice: main issues in the United States.

The use of clinical guidelines has become a key issue in the US health care system. In contrast to European systems, where such initiatives usually are controlled by one administrative agency, in the US there is a pluralistic approach and many kinds of guidelines coexist, initiated by health professions, managed care organizations, state or federal agencies, hospitals, and insurers. This paper reviews the main trends, indicating that guidelines will play an increasingly prominent role: use of institution-based guidelines vs national, professional, or state-based guidelines; use of more decision-support systems made possible by computerization and changes in cost containment strategies. Combining quality of care objectives with the business objectives of institutions increases the likelihood of a wider adoption by physicians. Several issues, such as the legal implications or the conflict of objectives, illustrate limits in the use of such standards to judge individual cases; however, most recent developments tend to reconcile individual decisions and what is known from probabilities on representative samples. By bringing such information into the decision process between physician and patient, the use of guidelines challenges the traditional asymmetry of information between professionals and patients. In a context of increasing health care costs, clinical guidelines represent a very useful tool for debating rationing issues and standard benefit packages, in order to make the system more equitable. Evaluations of the effectiveness of clinical guidelines on performance are contradictory, but when rigorous evaluations exist, clinical guidelines are found to be effective. The amount of improvement, however, may vary considerably.

Critical Pathways↗

PubMed1997

Practice guideline for arterial blood gas measurement in the intensive care unit decreases numbers and increases appropriateness of tests.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that implementation of a practice guideline for blood gas measurement would decrease numbers and increase appropriateness of tests (according to criteria in the guideline) for up to 1 yr after introduction of the guideline. DESIGN: Numbers of tests and appropriateness of each test were measured retrospectively during each of five periods: two baseline periods 2 yrs and 1 yr before introduction of the guideline and three follow-up periods 2 to 3 months, 6 to 7 months, and 12 to 13 months after introduction of the guideline. SETTING: A ten-bed multidisciplinary intensive care unit (ICU) within a 500-bed tertiary teaching hospital. PATIENTS: A random sample of 30 patients admitted to the ICU during each of the periods specified above. INTERVENTIONS: The nominal group process was used to develop a new guideline and a multipronged educational approach was used to facilitate implementation of the guideline. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: At 2 to 3 months, test numbers decreased from 4.9 +/- 1.6 to 3.1 +/- 1.8 (SD) tests/patient/day and to 2.4 +/- 1.2 tests/patient/day at 12 to 13 months. Appropriateness increased from a mean of 44% at baseline to 78% at 2 to 3 months and 79% at 12 to 13 months. There were no differences in Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation scores or ICU mortality among the patient groups and no differences in number of ventilator days or time to wean from ventilation. Cost-minimization analysis showed that the incremental cost-saving 1 yr after introduction of the guideline was $19.18 per patient per day. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of this guideline for arterial blood gas measurement increases efficiency of test utilization without prolonging mechanical ventilation or affecting outcome.

APACHE↗

PubMed2000

Guidelines for the use of do-not-resuscitate orders in Dutch hospitals.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence and analyze the content of guidelines for the use of do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders in Dutch hospitals. DESIGN: Cross-sectional descriptive study. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A questionnaire was mailed to the directors of patient care at all 143 Dutch hospitals. Directors were asked whether their hospitals had guidelines for the use of DNR orders and to provide copies of the guidelines if they did. The content of the guidelines was analyzed with regard to basic assumptions about nonresuscitation, definitions, persons involved in decision-making, advance directives, starting discussions about nonresuscitation, notation, evaluation, and other aspects. Of the 143 hospital directors surveyed, 95% responded. Sixty percent of the hospitals had guidelines for the use of DNR orders and provided copies. The assumption "always resuscitate, unless" was mentioned in 66% of guidelines. In 93% it was stated that patients should be involved in decision-making about nonfutile resuscitation. In 38% it was stated that in principle, living wills were respected in cases of incompetence. The role of proxies was mainly to discuss decisions (58% of guidelines), not to make them. The most frequently mentioned moment for starting a discussion about nonresuscitation was the onset of clinical deterioration of the patient (41%). CONCLUSIONS: It is promising that 60% of Dutch hospitals have developed guidelines for the use of DNR orders. However, current guidelines can be improved in many respects.

Cross-Sectional Studies↗

PubMed1997

Summary and evaluation of guidelines for occupational exposure to power frequency electric and magnetic fields.

Major U.S. and international guidelines for limiting occupational exposures to EMF are evaluated. These safety guidelines are designed to prevent short-term adverse effects by maintaining bulk-tissue current densities below 10 mA m(-2) (rms). Above this level, effects of induced currents and electric fields can include stimulation of neural and cardiac tissues. The models and input data used by guideline-setting organizations to relate 50/60-Hz magnetic-field exposures to induced current densities differ significantly. In order to develop a better understanding of such differences, the current densities derived from exposure guideline models are compared to minimum thresholds for cardiac stimulation and fibrillation. The nominal minimum thresholds for cardiac stimulation and ventricular fibrillation are 100 times and 200 times greater, respectively, than the current density of 10 mA m(-2) used as a dosimetric limit. However, the assumed relationship between the 10 mA m(-2) dose limit and magnetic field exposure limits introduces additional uncertainty. The ratios between the threshold for cardiac stimulation and the calculated induced current density at the exposure limit vary between a low of 50 and a high of 526, depending upon the guideline. These ratios, as indicators of implicit safety factors, are larger than those recommended to protect against adverse effects of induced current density, including cardiac stimulation, in magnetic resonance imaging or against adverse effects of toxic chemical exposures. This review and assessment of EMF occupational exposure guidelines suggests that several scientific and compliance issues remain ambiguous or unresolved. Recommendations are made for guideline organizations to strengthen and clarify the scientific basis for the guideline process. These recommendations include the documentation of supporting data, development of operational definitions for guidelines, examination of dosimetric models, clarification of safety factors, and identification of high priority topics for future research.

Biophysics↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Burn pain management: a guideline-based approach.

The pain associated with burn injury and treatment often is managed poorly. The purpose of this article is to describe available pain-management guidelines and to explain how burn pain can be enhanced by using a guideline-based approach. Data from a retrospective audit are used to highlight several of the common causes of pain mismanagement: including inadequate pain assessment, analgesic-knowledge deficits, and incomplete documentation. Key recommendations from the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research's Acute Pain Management Guidelines are highlighted. Guideline-based suggestions from these and other guidelines are presented as a basis for burn pain management-guideline development. Guidelines for burn-pain management must be broad in scope to allow for variations in analgesic needs across all patient populations and phases of burn recovery. Guidelines are necessary because studies show that information and education alone have little effect on the quality of pain management. What is effective are guideline-based initiatives that make pain visible and care providers accountable.

Burns↗

PubMed2001

Successes and failures in the implementation of evidence-based guidelines for clinical practice.

BACKGROUND: The development and implementation of (evidence-based) clinical practice guidelines is one of the promising and effective tools for improving the quality of care. However, many guidelines are not used after dissemination. Implementation activities frequently produce only moderate improvement. It is important to study specific guideline programs in detail to learn from their successes and failures. OBJECTIVES: Experiences with more than 10 years of development and dissemination of clinical guidelines for family medicine in the Netherlands are presented in this paper. RESULTS: More than 70 evidence-based guidelines have been set in a rigorous procedure and have been spread via a variety of strategies. Knowledge and acceptance of the guidelines in the target group is high. In particular, a multifaceted approach with written (scientific journal, support materials) and personal approaches (local consensus discussions, contact with colleagues, outreach visits by peers) seems to be effective in the dissemination. The guideline recommendations are followed in on average 67% of the decisions, but there is a large variation between different physicians and between different guidelines. Specific strategies designed to handle possible obstacles to implementation are needed to improve adherence. Specific implementation projects showed the importance of a "diagnostic analysis" of the target group and target setting before the start of the implementation. CONCLUSIONS: A program to implement a guideline should be well designed, well prepared, and preferably pilot tested before use. Such a program should be built into the normal channels and structures for improving care. More research into the details of implementation is needed to better understand the critical determinants of change in practice.

Evidence-Based Medicine↗

PubMed1995

Developing clinically valid practice guidelines.

Valid guidelines, when appropriately disseminated and implemented, can lead to changes in clinical practice and improvements in patient outcome. Guidelines are more likely to be valid if they are developed using systematic reviews, national or regional guideline development groups (including representatives of key disciplines) and explicit links between recommendations and scientific evidence. This paper discusses the practical implications of adopting this approach for guideline development and the role of peer review guidelines as another element of the process to ensure validity. Considerable resources are required to develop evidence-linked guidelines, but this investment can be recouped by relatively small changes in the process or outcome of care. Good leadership and technical support are required for the successful development of clinically valid guidelines, which is dependent upon the small-group processes of guideline development panels and the translation of evidence into recommendations. Future guideline developers need to gain expertise in these areas. Research priorities are identified.

Consensus Statements as Topic↗

PubMed1997

Future directions for clinical practice guidelines: needs, lead agencies and potential dissemination strategies identified by Australian general practitioners.

There has been an increasing interest in developing clinical practice guidelines for general practitioners as a means of improving health outcomes. We conducted a survey of a national random sample of Australian general practitioners in May 1995 to determine their needs, preferred formats and dissemination strategies and to identify potential lead agencies for guidelines development. Of 373 eligible general practitioners, 286 (77 per cent) returned completed questionnaires. At least 50 per cent of respondents considered guidelines in angina, psychotic illness, skin cancer and attention deficit disorder as 'extremely' or 'very' useful. However, three other topics identified as areas for future guidelines development in Better health outcomes for Australians were so rated by less than half of the general practitioners surveyed. The Australian Cancer Society and the Australian Medical Association outranked nine other organisations in terms of credibility in guidelines development. Innovative formats, including computerised medical records or text, were not highly rated, consistent with our finding that only 27 respondents (9 per cent) had Internet access. Strategies nominated as likely to increase the adoption of a guideline included a personal visit by a trained nurse, a lecture about its content or a Medicare rebate being available when a patient was managed in accordance with the guideline. Public health practitioners and nominated lead agencies are encouraged to respond to these findings and recognise potential strategies to enhance the effective dissemination of guidelines. Interventional studies are required to demonstrate and allow understanding of changes in clinical practice attributable to guidelines.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Guidelines for the management of pelvic pain associated with endometriosis: a systematic appraisal of their quality.

BACKGROUND: Guidelines exist for the management of endometriosis. Validated and reliable appraisal tools exist to assess the quality of guidelines. OBJECTIVES: To systematically appraise the quality of guidelines for the management of pelvic pain associated with endometriosis. SEARCH STRATEGY: Guidelines were identified using a prospective protocol through a systematic search of MEDLINE (1951-2005), EMBASE (1974-2005), the Cochrane Library (2005, issue 2), known guideline websites and the World Wide Web. SELECTION CRITERIA: Type of document: guideline, consensus statement, care protocol or healthcare technology assessment produced by national or international professional organisations and societies or governmental agencies; subject: management of pelvic pain associated with endometriosis. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two validated appraisal tools, Cluzeau and The Appraisal of Guidelines and Research and Evaluation (AGREE), were used to quantitatively assess the quality of guidelines. Areas evaluated included 'rigour of development', 'context and content' and 'application.' MAIN RESULTS: Eight of 596 potentially relevant citations identified met our inclusion criteria. The Cluzeau instrument quality score were the following: rigour of development, 53% (range 5-65%); context and content, 69% (range 29-79%) and application 20% (range 0-20%). The application dimension achieved significantly lower quality scores (P = 0.026 versus rigour of development and P = 0.017 versus context and content). The AGREE instrument quality scores were the following: scope and purpose, 68% (range 17-89%); stakeholder involvement, 33% (range 13-63%); rigour of development, 49% (range 10-81%); clarity of presentation, 55% (range 42-67%); applicability, 14% (range 0-28%) and editorial independence, 28% (range 8-67%). The applicability domain achieved significantly lower quality scores (P = 0.001 versus scope and purpose and P = 0.009 versus rigour of development). AUTHOR'S CONCLUSIONS: Guidelines for the management of pelvic pain associated with endometriosis do not comply with the recommendations for high-quality standards.

Endometriosis↗

PubMed2000

Treatment guideline for nursing home-acquired pneumonia based on community practice.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the findings of a retrospective study of the treatment of nursing home-acquired pneumonia (NHAP) in 11 nursing homes in one community and the development of a treatment guideline for NHAP using data from the retrospective study. DESIGN: A retrospective chart review of 239 episodes of NHAP occurring between November 1, 1997, and April 30, 1998, was performed. Data regarding antibiotic treatment of NHAP were used to revise a treatment guideline developed by the authors. Further refinements of the guideline were made based on small group discussions with physicians and nurse practitioners caring for the study population. SETTING: Residents with NHAP were identified among the populations of 11 nursing homes in the metropolitan Buffalo, New York area (Erie county). These 11 nursing homes had a total of 2375 beds, comprising nearly one-third of all nursing home beds in the county. PARTICIPANTS: Nursing home residents with chest X-rays showing infiltrates and signs and symptoms of pneumonia. MEASUREMENTS: Antibiotic treatment (drug used, route of administration, and duration of treatment), location of initial treatment (nursing home or hospital), and status (alive or dead) of each resident were recorded 30 days after diagnosis of NHAP. RESULTS: Of the 239 episodes of NHAP, 171 (72%) were initially treated in nursing homes. Of these 171 patients, 105 (61%) were treated only with an oral regimen, whereas 66 (39%) were treated initially with an intramuscular antibiotic and subsequently with an oral regimen. There was no significant difference in 30-day mortality rates between those initially treated in nursing homes (22%) and those initially treated in hospitals (31%; P = .15) or between those initially treated with an oral regimen in nursing homes (21%) and those initially treated with an intramuscular antibiotic in nursing homes (25%; P = .56). There was no consistency in how physicians made the choice to use intramuscular antibiotics in nursing homes, and a logistic model for predicting this approach could explain very little. The frequency of the prescription of various antibiotic agents in nursing homes and in hospitals was tabulated as well as the duration of treatment; specific attention was paid to the timing of the switch to an oral agent among episodes initially treated with a parenteral agent. These data were used in the guideline to make specific recommendations regarding which agent to prescribe, the duration of parenteral therapy, the timing of the switch to an oral regimen, and the duration of treatment. In the setting of informal small groups, the guideline was discussed with physicians who cared for residents with NHAP in the study nursing homes. Revisions made to the guideline were based on these discussions. CONCLUSIONS: A treatment guideline for NHAP was developed primarily on the basis of the practices of geriatricians in one community. These treatment practices were similar to those reported in the literature in terms of the proportion of patients treated in nursing homes and the antibiotics prescribed. The guideline also provided specific recommendations for timing of the switch to an oral agent after parenteral therapy and for duration of treatment. Studies are in progress to determine if use of this guideline will reduce some of the variation observed in the treatment of NHAP.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed2004

Compliance with recommended prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism: improving the use and rate of uptake of clinical practice guidelines.

Although several authoritative, evidence-based, guidelines for the prevention of venous thromboembolism (VTE) have been published, the use of VTE prophylaxis in routine clinical practice varies markedly. Even in orthopedic surgery, the indication for which prophylaxis is used most often, a significant proportion of surgeons do not use routine prophylaxis. When prophylaxis is used, guideline recommendations are often not followed. A number of factors may contribute to the under-use of guidelines. Physician-related factors include: a lack of awareness of, or familiarity with, the guidelines; a perception that VTE is not a significant problem or that VTE prophylaxis is ineffective; and concern about potential bleeding risks. The guidelines may also be perceived to be too complicated or difficult to apply in a routine manner. In addition, a lack of facilities or resources may also present a barrier to implementation of the guidelines. A number of strategies are being investigated in an attempt to improve compliance with guidelines for VTE prophylaxis. For example, the Investigators Against Thromboembolism (INATE) initiative has developed a simplified pocket guideline on VTE prophylaxis in orthopedic and trauma surgery in order to raise awareness of the current guideline recommendations.

Cooperative Behavior↗

PubMed2000

Effect and outcomes of the ASGE guidelines on the periendoscopic management of patients who take anticoagulants.

OBJECTIVE: In December 1997, the American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) issued guidelines regarding periendoscopic management of patients who take anticoagulants. They recommended that physicians substitute heparin for warfarin in their patients who have highly thrombotic conditions (e.g., a mechanical valve in the mitral position), and who will undergo high-risk procedures (e.g., polypectomy). The purpose of this study was to assess whether patient outcomes and anticoagulant management changed after the publication of the 1997 guidelines. METHODS: We collected utilization data on all 104 patients at the Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System who were taking chronic warfarin therapy and who underwent endoscopic procedures during the study period (1996-1999). These patients underwent 99 colonoscopies, 63 upper endoscopies, and nine endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographies. According to the ASGE guidelines, 18 of these patients had highly thrombotic conditions, whereas the remaining 86 patients had relatively low thrombotic conditions. We calculated their costs for intravenous or subcutaneous heparin therapy from the perspective of society. We followed-up all patients for 3 months, to determine the incidence of thrombotic and hemorrhagic outcomes. RESULTS: No patient suffered a thromboembolism or a hemorrhage; thus, the adverse-event rate (95% confidence interval) was 0% (0-3%). As recommended by the ASGE guidelines, all five (100%) patients who had highly thrombotic conditions had heparin substituted for warfarin before undergoing high-risk procedures. This strategy was also followed in 44 (27%) of the 166 procedures in other patients: 16 high-risk procedures in low-risk patients, and 28 low-risk procedures (in 20 low-thrombotic patients and in eight high-thrombotic patients). There was no significant difference between the management of any patients before and after the publication of the guidelines. The average cost per course of heparin therapy (typically 2 days intravenous heparin preprocedure, and 3 days heparin administered subcutaneously postendoscopy) was $1684. In all, 44 (90%) of 49 courses of heparin substituted for warfarin therapy were not recommended by the guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: Patients treated by the ASGE guidelines had the same 0% rate of thrombosis as patients who received periendoscopic heparin outside of the guidelines. Following the ASGE guidelines in all patients would have reduced the use of heparin therapy by 90%, for a net savings of $74,100.

Aged↗

PubMed2006

Effectiveness and efficiency of different guidelines on statin treatment for preventing deaths from coronary heart disease: modelling study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the potential effectiveness and efficiency of different guidelines for statin treatment to reduce deaths from coronary heart disease in the Canadian population. DESIGN: Modelled outcomes of screening and treatment recommendations of six national or international guidelines--from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, joint British societies, and European societies. SETTING: Canada. DATA SOURCES: Details for 6760 men and women aged 20-74 years from the Canadian Heart Health Survey (weighted sample of 12,300,000 people) that included physical measurements including a lipid profile. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The number of people recommended for treatment with statins, the potential number of deaths from coronary heart disease avoided, and the number needed to treat to avoid one coronary heart disease death with five years of statin treatment if the recommendations from each guideline were fully implemented. RESULTS: When applied to the Canadian population, the Australian and British guidelines were the most effective, potentially avoiding the most deaths over five years (> 15,000 deaths). The New Zealand guideline was the most efficient, potentially avoiding almost as many deaths (14,700) while recommending treatment to the fewest number of people (12.9% of people v 17.3% with the Australian and British guidelines). If their "optional" recommendations are included, the US guidelines recommended treating about twice as many people as the New Zealand guidelines (24.5% of the population, an additional 1.4 million people) with almost no increase in the number of deaths avoided. CONCLUSIONS: By focusing recommendations on people with the highest risk of coronary heart disease, the Canadian, US, and European societies guidelines could improve either their effectiveness (in terms of hundreds of avoided deaths) or efficiency (in terms of thousands of fewer people recommended treatment) in the Canadian population.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Feasibility and cost efficiency of a diagnostic guideline for chronic polyneuropathy: a prospective implementation study.

BACKGROUND: Extensive investigations are often performed to reveal the cause of chronic polyneuropathy. It is not known whether a restrictive diagnostic guideline improves cost efficiency without loss of diagnostic reliability. METHODS: In a prospective multicentre study, a comparison was made between the workup in patients with chronic polyneuropathy before and after guideline implementation. RESULTS: Three hundred and ten patients were included: 173 before and 137 after guideline implementation. In all patients, the diagnosis would remain the same if the workup was limited to the investigations in the guideline. After guideline implementation, the time to reach a diagnosis decreased by two weeks. There was a reduction of 33% in the number and costs of routine laboratory investigations/patient, and a reduction of 27% in the total number of laboratory tests/patient, despite low guideline adherence. CONCLUSION: The implementation of a diagnostic guideline for chronic polyneuropathy can reduce diagnostic delay and the number and costs of investigations for each patient without loss of diagnostic reliability. Continuous evaluation strategies after guideline implementation may improve guideline adherence and cost efficiency.

Chronic Disease↗

PubMed1999

Production and evaluation of guidelines for the management of inflammatory bowel disease: the Leicester experience.

Consensus guidelines for the management of patients with inflammatory bowel disease were produced by gastroenterologists, gastrointestinal surgeons and a cross-section of general practitioners (GPs) from Leicestershire in order to develop a seamless pattern of care with a common approach to diagnosis and treatment. It was hoped that the guidelines would encourage a movement towards care in the community for many patients with stable disease and so speed up new consultation rates. The study then assessed the impact of these guidelines on the referral letters of GPs to hospital consultants, the prediction of disease and adherence to them on re-referring patients after discharge. The guidelines were distributed to all 487 GPs in the Leicester Health Authority area and the gastroenterology teams within the hospitals. The value of the guidelines was assessed by an audit of referral letters, the length of time from referral letter to out-patient appointment, both before and after the launch of the guidelines, adherence to the guidelines on re-referral, and monitoring the outcome of the discharged patients. Whilst the guidelines may have helped GPs to manage stable patients in the community, the content of referral letters and the diagnostic abilities of GPs were not seen to improve since the launch of the guidelines. However, only 5% of stable patients who were discharged from one clinic were re-referred for inflammatory bowel disease.

Attitude↗

PubMed1992

Development of clinical guidelines in a health district: an attempt to find consensus.

OBJECTIVE: To formulate consensus based guidelines for antenatal care in a health district. DESIGN: Prospective formulation of draft guidelines by a working group of consultant obstetricians and general practitioners with an obstetric interest, canvassing opinions of all GPs in the district by questionnaire, and revision and final circulation of the guidelines. SETTING: One health district. SUBJECTS: All 160 GPs in the district and members of the working party. MAIN MEASURES: Questionnaire responses to specific proposals within the draft guidelines for managing anaemia, antepartum haemorrhage, and hypertension. RESULTS: 136 GPs responded (response rate 85%); responders and nonresponders did not differ in age, sex, or presence on obstetric list. Overall they favoured more conservative management than suggested in the guidelines. For example, only 38% (44/116) prescribed iron routinely and 34% (38/113) referred to hospital for haemoglobin concentration of < or = 10 g/l; 10% referred women unnecessarily for oedema unassociated with proteinuria; and 20% managed active bleeding progressing to old brown staining as an urgent admission. The guidelines were revised according to the relative weight of the views obtained. CONCLUSION: Establishing guidelines is mainly a political process. Canvassed views influenced guidelines most when internal disagreement existed within the working party. IMPLICATIONS AND ACTION: Regular revising of the guidelines is planned, which, in conjunction with repeating the questionnaire to monitor changing practice, will allow a long term district wide clinical review.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMed1998

Effect of clinical guidelines in nursing, midwifery, and the therapies: a systematic review of evaluations.

BACKGROUND: Although nursing, midwifery, and professions allied to medicine are increasingly using clinical guidelines to reduce inappropriate variations in practice and ensure higher quality care, there have been no rigorous overviews of their effectiveness, 18 evaluations of guidelines were identified that meet Cochrane criteria for scientific rigor. METHODS: Guideline evaluations conducted since 1975 which used a randomised controlled trial, controlled before and after, or interrupted time series design were identified through a combination of database and hand searching. RESULTS: 18 studies met the inclusion criteria. Three studies evaluated guideline dissemination or implementation strategies, nine compared use of a guideline with a no guideline state; six studies examined skill substitution: performance of nurses operating according to a guideline were compared with standard care, generally provided by a physician. Significant changes in the process of care were found in six out of eight studies measuring process and in which guidelines were expected to have a positive impact on performance. In seven of the nine studies measuring outcomes of care, significant differences in favour of the intervention group were found. Skill substitution studies generally supported the hypothesis of no difference between protocol driven by nurses and care by a physician. Only one study included a formal economic evaluation, with equivocal findings. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from the review provide some evidence that care driven by a guideline can be effective in changing the process and outcome of care. However, many studies fell short of the criteria of the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group (EPOC) for methodological quality.

Allied Health Occupations↗