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PubMed2003

Social behaviors as determined by different arrangements of social consequences: diffusion of responsibility effects with competition.

According to a recently proposed synthesis, social loafing, social facilitation, and deindividuation can be viewed as different ways of arranging social consequences (B. Guerin, 1999). The effects of such arrangements have been measured in past research as productive output (social loafing and social facilitation) or as antinormative behaviors (deindividuation), but all 3 effects are manipulable by changing individual identifiability, evaluation, social identity, task difficulty, and presence in a group. The synthesis also predicted that these same variables would apply to other measures and other arrangements of social consequences. To this end, in the present 2 experiments, the author varied the arrangements for consequence diffusion in a competition situation by varying small and large competing groups and measured productive output and antinormative behaviors simultaneously. The 2 experiments showed social-consequence effects in competition situations with college students, giving further support for the social-consequence synthesis and the idea that the verbal naming of phenomena in social psychology is arbitrary.

Competitive Behavior↗

PubMed2004

Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care (SBU). Chapter 9. Consequences of being on sick leave.

The possible consequences of sick leave can be measured at different levels in society. This chapter focuses on the consequences from the perspective of the sick-listed individual. Sick leave may have both positive and negative consequences for the individual, e.g. regarding disease, health, working life, social life, lifestyle, and emotional aspects. Some of these factors have been investigated in different studies. However, scientific evidence is insufficient since there are too few studies on the consequences of sickness absence and disability pension. The lack of relevant studies is the most striking observation from the review of studies on the consequences of being sick listed.

Absenteeism↗

PubMed1990

The experiencing of positive consequences of drinking in four Scandinavian countries.

Based on data from a comparative survey of drinking in four Scandinavian countries (Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), the experiencing of positive consequences of drinking was studied in relation to alcohol consumption, intoxication frequency and the experiencing of negative consequences of drinking. In all four countries a substantial portion--both of the men and of the women--reported having experienced various positive effects of drinking during the last 12 months. The positive consequences clearly correlated with yearly alcohol consumption and even more with intoxication frequency. A strong link between the experiencing of positive and negative consequences of drinking was also found. The study also indicates that there are national differences in the experiencing of positive consequences of drinking which do not reflect the national differences in total alcohol consumption.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

A model of consequences of need-driven, dementia-compromised behavior.

PURPOSE: To extend the original need-driven, dementia-compromised behavior (NDB) model by explaining the consequences of behavioral symptoms for the person with dementia. ORGANIZING CONSTRUCT AND METHODS: Literature is reviewed and the consequences of expressing needs through need-driven, dementia-compromised behaviors are posited. The consequences of need-driven, dementia-compromised behavior (C-NDB) theory is proposed as a framework to improve understanding of the person with dementia and the consequences of behavioral symptoms and unmet needs. FINDINGS: Instead of normative verbal communication, people with significant dementia commonly communicate need via non-normative behaviors, making it difficult for caregivers to know that the person has a need and the extent of such need. Not meeting needs of people with dementia affects the person with dementia, care factors, and contextual factors. Cascading effects occur in which not meeting the original need results in new needs and behavioral symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: This framework indicates the consequences of expressing need behaviorally rather than verbally and shows that caregiver actions might moderate the events that lead to many needs being unresolved. Suggestions are made regarding future research questions deduced from the model.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The costs and consequences of neglected medically necessary oral care.

Oral diseases and conditions may adversely affect general health, and certain medical conditions may have a negative effect on oral health. However, little attention has been given to assessing the economic costs and consequences associated with care that is a direct result of, or has a direct impact on, an underlying medical condition and/or its resulting therapy. The costs can be significant for patients; their families; third-party payers such as insurance companies, Medicare, and Medicaid; and society. The health consequences of such conditions may dramatically affect function, morbidity, quality of life, and survival. This paper reviews one possible approach for identifying and measuring the costs and consequences associated with medically necessary oral health care and presents a framework for evaluating medically necessary oral health care. The paper also describes the cost components of care and the dimensions of health consequences. Finally, an example illustrates this approach. The summary information presented here is meant to offer concepts and ideas important in assessing the costs and health consequences associated with medically necessary oral health care. Individuals interested in a more detailed discussion of economic evaluation of health care programs and outcomes assessment are referred elsewhere. 10-23

Cost of Illness↗

PubMed2003

Lifetime consequences of abnormal fetal pancreatic development.

There is ample evidence that an adverse intrauterine environment has harmful consequences for health in later life. Maternal diabetes and experimentally induced hyperglycaemia result in asymmetric overgrowth, which is associated with an increased insulin secretion and hyperplasia of the insulin-producing B-cells in the fetuses. In adult life, a reduced insulin secretion is found. In contrast, intrauterine growth restriction is associated with low insulin secretion and a delayed development of the insulin-producing B-cells. These perinatal alterations may induce a deficient adaptation of the endocrine pancreas and insulin resistance in later life. Intrauterine growth restriction in human pregnancy is mainly due to a reduced uteroplacental blood flow or to maternal undernutrition or malnutrition. However, intrauterine growth restriction can be present in severe diabetes complicated by vasculopathy and nephropathy. In animal models, intrauterine growth retardation can be obtained through pharmacological (streptozotocin), dietary (semi-starvation, low protein diet) or surgical (intrauterine artery ligation) manipulation of the maternal animal. The endocrine pancreas and more specifically the insulin-producing B-cells play an important role in the adaptation to an adverse intrauterine milieu and the consequences in later life. The long-term consequences of an unfavourable intrauterine environment are of major importance worldwide. Concerted efforts are needed to explore how these long-term effects can be prevented. This review will consist of two parts. In the first part, we discuss the long-term consequences in relation to the development of the fetal endocrine pancreas and fetal growth in the human; in the second part, we focus on animal models with disturbed fetal and pancreatic development and the consequences for later life.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Class differences in the social consequences of illness?

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To investigate adverse social consequences of limiting longstanding illness and the modifying effect of socioeconomic position on these consequences. DESIGN: Cohort study on the panel within the annual Swedish Survey of Living Conditions where participants were interviewed twice with eight years interval 1979-89 and 1986-97. Sociodemographic characteristics, self reported longstanding illness, employment situation and financial conditions were measured at baseline. Social consequences (economic inactivity, unemployment, financial difficulties) of limiting longstanding illness were measured at follow up eight years later. SETTING: National sample for Sweden during a period that partly was characterised by high unemployment and reduction in insurance benefits. PARTICIPANTS: PARTICIPANTS were 13 855 men and women, economically active, not unemployed, without financial difficulties at the first interview and aged 25-64 years at the follow up. MAIN RESULTS: Persons with limiting longstanding illness had a higher risk of adverse social consequences than persons without illness. The effect was modified by socioeconomic position only for labour market exclusion while the effects on unemployment and financial difficulties were equal across socioeconomic groups. CONCLUSIONS: Labour market policies as well as income maintenance policies that deal with social and economical consequences of longstanding illness are important elements of programmes to tackle inequalities in health. Rehabilitation within health care has a similar important part to play in this.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed2005

Research in mental health: social etiology versus social consequences.

This article differentiates a social etiology model focused on identifying the social antecedents of one particular mental disorder from a social consequences model concerned with the overall mental health consequences of various social arrangements. In the social etiology model, people with disorders other than the one particular disorder singled out for investigation are implicitly classified as "well." This disorder-specific model is inappropriate for the more general sociological task of identifying the consequences of various social arrangements, such as concentrated poverty, racial segregation, and gender stratification. It is problematic because these consequences are typically nonspecific, not limited to one particular disorder. From this perspective, persons classified as "well" in the disorder-specific model who have a different disorder are misclassified. Consequently, the impact of social arrangements is underestimated, and estimates of causal effects are biased. To address these problems, the full range of theoretically derived mental health outcomes needs to be simultaneously analyzed.

Humans↗

PubMed2001

Integrating social value orientation and the consideration of future consequences within the extended norm activation model of proenvironmental behaviour.

This study integrates social value orientation (Messick & McClintock, 1968) and the consideration of future consequences (CFC; Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, & Edwards, 1994) within the extended norm activation model of proenvironmental behaviour (Stern, Dietz, & Kalof, 1993). A survey of college students (N = 161) revealed some preliminary support for the proposed model, using past and intended involvement in proenvironmental political behaviour as the primary outcome variables. Relative to proselfs, prosocials expressed stronger proenvironmental intentions and a stronger belief in the social consequences of environmental conditions. Relative to low CFCs, high CFCs expressed stronger proenvironmental intentions, greater involvement in proenvironmental behaviour, and a stronger belief in the personal, social and biospheric consequences of environmental conditions. Perceived consequences mediated the relationship between CFC and proenvironmental intentions and behaviour, and high CFCs evidence a stronger positive relationship between perceived social consequences and proenvironmental intentions.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Family risk factors for alcohol-related consequences and poor adjustment in fraternity and sorority members: exploring the role of parent-child conflict.

OBJECTIVE: The relationship between perceptions of parent-child conflict and alcohol-related consequences was examined in a sample of first-year fraternity and sorority members. METHOD: Members (N = 302) were asked to complete measures of conflict with their mothers and fathers and report on parent problem drinking. Drinking rates, alcohol-related consequences, depression, and global psychological distress were assessed 1 year later (N = 233). RESULTS: From a final sample with complete mother and father information (N = 202), parent-child conflict at baseline significantly predicted alcohol-related consequences 1 year later for all students. Father-child conflict was a significantly better predictor for male students. Parent histories of problem drinking did not account for this relationship. Although male students reported substantially higher rates of drinking, the relationship between drinking and alcohol-related consequences was stronger among female students. Parent-child conflict at baseline also predicted adjustment to college at 1-year follow-up. Students who perceived higher levels of mother-child and father-child conflict reported higher levels of depression. Students who perceived higher levels of father-child conflict reported higher levels of global psychological distress. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that perceptions of conflict in specific parent-child relationships constitute a risk factor for poor college adjustment and the experience of alcohol-related consequences.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Predicting negative drinking consequences: examining descriptive norm perception.

OBJECTIVE: This study explored how much variance in college student negative drinking consequences is explained by descriptive norm perception, beyond that accounted for by student gender and self-reported alcohol use. METHOD: A derivation sample (N=7565; 54% women) and a replication sample (N=8924; 55.5% women) of undergraduate students completed the Campus Alcohol Survey in classroom settings. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that student gender and average number of drinks when "partying" were significantly related to harmful consequences resulting from drinking. Men reported more consequences than did women, and drinking amounts were positively correlated with consequences. However, descriptive norm perception did not explain any additional variance beyond that attributed to gender and alcohol use. Furthermore, there was no significant three-way interaction among student gender, alcohol use, and descriptive norm perception. CONCLUSIONS: Norm perception contributed no significant variance in explaining harmful consequences beyond that explained by college student gender and alcohol use.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

College student drinking, attitudes toward risks, and drinking consequences.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether college students' attitudes toward risks explain significant variance in drinking consequences beyond gender, alcohol use, and self-protective strategies. METHOD: A derivation sample (N=276; 52% women) and a replication sample (N=216; 52% women) of undergraduate students completed the Campus Alcohol Survey (CAS) and the Attitudes Toward Risks Scale (ATRS). RESULTS: Scores on the ATRS correlated positively with students' self-reported typical number of drinks and negative drinking consequences (p<.001). Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that ATRS scores explained significant variance in negative drinking consequences beyond college students' gender, typical number of drinks, and use of protective strategies (p<.001). Furthermore, a significant Drinks x ATRS interaction revealed that heavy-drinking students who scored high on the ATRS experienced the most harm from drinking (p<.01). Students with high-risk attitudes showed a stronger link between typical number of drinks and negative drinking consequences. CONCLUSIONS: Even when controlling for students' gender, alcohol use, and protective strategies, college students' attitudes toward risks explain significant variance in drinking consequences.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Long-term consequences of toxic epidermal necrolysis in children.

OBJECTIVE: Toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) is an acute inflammatory systemic condition that involves injury not just to the skin. Historically, it has been associated with a high mortality but few long-term consequences among survivors. With improved survival, long-term consequences may be becoming more apparent. The objective of this study was to define these long-term consequences and their frequency. METHODS: From July 1, 1991, to June 30, 2000, 11 children with severe TEN were referred to a regional pediatric burn facility. Wounds were managed with a strategy involving prevention of wound desiccation and superinfection, including the frequent use of biological wound coverings. All children survived and have been followed in the burn clinic. The records of all children were reviewed in detail. RESULTS: Two boys and 9 girls with an average age of 7.2 +/- 1.8 years (range: 6 months-15 years) and sloughed surface area of 76 +/- 6% of the body surface (range: 50%-95%) were admitted to the burn unit for care. Antibiotics (3 children), anticonvulsants (4 children), nonsteroidals (2 children), and viral syndrome or unknown agents (2 children) were believed to have triggered the syndrome. Six (55%) children required intubation for an average of 9.7 +/- 1.8 days (range: 2-14 days). Mucosal involvement occurred in 10 (91%) and ocular involvement in 10 (91%). Lengths of stay averaged 19 +/- 3 days (range: 6-40 days). Overall follow-up averaged 14 +/- 13 months. Three children had no apparent long-term consequences of the disease and were referred to primary care follow-up after the 2-month burn clinic visit. The remaining children had follow-up averaging 23 +/- 13 months. The most common long-term morbidity involved eyes (3 children [27%]), nails (4 children [36%]), and variegated skin depigmentation (all children). One child developed vaginal stenosis from mucosal inflammation. No esophageal strictures or recurrent TEN has been diagnosed. CONCLUSIONS: Survival has improved in children with TEN, but long-term sequelae are not infrequent. The most common long-term consequences involve the eyes, the skin, and the nails.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1980

Consequence analysis: Its effects on verbal statements about an environmental project.

Typically, citizens lack relevant information concerning possible consequences of proposed environmental projects. Despite federal requirements for citizen participation in decisions about proposed roadway projects, no systematic procedures exist for educating citizens as to the possible consequences of such projects. The effects of a consequence analysis procedure on community residents' verbal statements about the favorability of a proposed roadway project were assessed. The consequence analysis procedure involved asking residents to rate the desirability and magnitude of each of 48 possible consequences of the proposed roadway project. Following the intervention, overall ratings of favorability of the project changed for nine of ten residents. Community residents' ratings of the quality of participants' justifications of their position on the roadway issue provided evidence of generalization to this collateral behavior.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1987

The efficacy of all-positive management as a function of the prior use of negative consequences.

Previous work suggests that an all-positive approach to child management can be effective. The present investigation extends these findings by examining the efficacy of an enhanced all-positive management system in the absence of a history of negative consequences. The on-task behavior and academic performance of 8 first- through third-grade children with academic and/or behavioral problems were observed in the classroom. Results indicated that, in the absence of a history of negative consequences, enhanced positive consequences were not sufficient to maintain on-task rates or academic accuracy at acceptable levels. The addition of negative consequences resulted in an immediate increase in on-task behavior and academic accuracy; a primarily positive approach appeared to be successful in maintaining these gains following the gradual (as opposed to abrupt) removal of the negative consequences.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1998

The role of cost-consequence analysis in healthcare decision-making.

A greater understanding of value associated with new pharmaceutical products should lead to better decision-making. Most commonly cost-effectiveness ratios (CERs) are used to indicate value; however, researchers have recently shown that CER estimates are rarely used by decision-makers in making formulary decisions. In this article, a cost-consequence approach to estimating the value for money of a new treatment for a specific disease is described. Using a cost-consequence approach, the impact of the new treatment on lifetime resource use and costs (including specific healthcare service use and costs, and productivity losses) and health outcomes (including disease symptoms, life expectancy and quality of life) for an individual or group of individuals is estimated and presented in a tabular format. The cost-consequence format is more likely to be approachable, readily understandable and applied by healthcare decision-makers than a simple CER. The decision-maker may use selected items from the cost-consequence analysis to compute composite measures of drug value, such as cost per life-year gained or cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained. In general, the cost-consequence approach, by making the impact of the new treatment as comprehensive and transparent as possible, will enable decision-makers to select the components most relevant to their perspective and will also give them confidence that the data are credible to use as the basis for resource allocation decisions.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Consequences of sexual decisions: the perceptions of rural adolescents.

The purpose of this study was to examine the content of adolescent thinking about the consequences of choosing abstinence, sexual intercourse with a condom, and unprotected intercourse. Consequences for the relationship and for each partner's thoughts and feelings were explored. Participants were 116 high school students living in a rural area of a midwestern state; their average age was 16 years. They completed a series of open-ended questions about possible outcomes to a scenario involving sexual decision making. Content analysis of responses revealed that about half of the participants associated abstinence with positive consequences; however, it was also associated with insecurity and the possibility of losing the relationship. Sexual intercourse with a condom was viewed as an indication of caring and responsibility and was associated with positive outcomes for the relationship. Identified consequences of unprotected intercourse were almost entirely negative. Some differences in perceived consequences were influenced by the gender of the partner. Integration of these findings into programs designed to prevent sexual risk-taking is discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Predictors of aversive alcohol consequences in a military sample.

The purpose of this study was to identify predictors of risky alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences among postdeployment soldiers. Demobilizing soldiers completed an assessment packet that included questions about demographic factors, relationships, stress, and alcohol-related consequences. Significant predictors of greater alcohol-related consequences, as assessed with the CAGE questionnaire, included fewer years of formal education, male gender, not being in an intimate relationship, racial/ethnic minority status, enlisted rank, having been deployed to the continental United States, and greater stress, whereas significant predictors of drinking and driving included male gender, not being in an intimate relationship, and greater stress. Identifying the predictors of alcohol consequences that occur upon demobilization may aid in determining which soldiers are at risk for such consequences before deployment and may help to maintain military readiness.

Adolescent↗