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PubMed1999

The consolidation of learning during sleep: comparing the pseudorehearsal and unlearning accounts.

We suggest that any brain-like (artificial neural network based) learning system will need a sleep-like mechanism for consolidating newly learned information if it wishes to cope with the sequential/ongoing learning of significantly new information. We summarise and explore two possible candidates for a computational account of this consolidation process in Hopfield type networks. The "pseudorehearsal" method is based on the relearning of randomly selected attractors in the network as the new information is added from some second system. This process is supposed to reinforce old information within the network and protect it from the disruption caused by learning new inputs. The "unlearning" method is based on the unlearning of randomly selected attractors in the network after new information has already been learned. This process is supposed to locate and remove the unwanted associations between information that obscure the learned inputs. We suggest that as a computational model of sleep consolidation, the pseudorehearsal approach is better supported by the psychological, evolutionary, and neurophysiological data (in particular accounting for the role of the hippocampus in consolidation).

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Young children's use of range-of-reference information in word learning.

An important source of information about a new word's meaning (and its associated lexical class) is its range of reference: the number of objects to which it is extended. Ninety toddlers (mean age = 37 months) participated in a study to determine whether young children can use this information in word learning. When a novel word was presented with unambiguous lexical class cues as either a proper name (i.e. 'His name is DAXY') or an adjective (i.e. 'He is very DAXY'), toddlers interpreted it appropriately, regardless of whether it was applied to one or both members of a pair of identical-looking stuffed animals. They restricted a proper name to the designated animal(s); but they generalized an adjective from the labeled animal(s) to a new animal bearing the same property. However, when the word was presented with no specific lexical class cues (i.e. 'DAXY'), toddlers made significantly different interpretations, depending on the number of referents. When the word was applied to one animal, they restricted it to that animal (consistent with a proper name interpretation); when the word was applied to two animals, they generalized it to a new animal with the property (consistent with an adjective or a restricted count noun interpretation). Range-of-reference information thus provided toddlers with a default cue to the meaning (and associated lexical class) of a novel word.

Association Learning↗
PubMed1993

Taxonomy of subjective phenomena: a neuropsychological basis of functional assessment of ischemic or traumatic brain lesions.

A proper evaluation of functional competence after central lesions has to be based on a classification of functions that one can agree upon. It is a sad fact in neuropsychology that such a classification is not available. An attempt will be made to discuss such a classification (or taxonomy) that might be useful. The basic idea is that elementary psychological functions are evolutionary products whose availability is dependent on the functional integrity of neuronal modules. Such modules are embedded neuronal mechanisms that are linked to localized structures or distributed neuronal algorithms. Constancy of interindividual loss of psychological functions associated with lesions of modules can be used to define a catalogue of functions. Using this principle one can differentiate four areas of psychological functions that are represented in a modular fashion. These areas are stimulus representations ("perception"), processing of information ("learning and memory"), evaluation of information (for instance by emotions), and finally action or reaction. Functional competence is, however, not only described by the potential availability of elementary psychological functions, but also by formal aspects, i.e. how functions are made available. Such formal aspects refer to activation and in particular to temporal problems of neuronal processing. A particular "time machine" will be discussed which is essential for functional competence. Central lesions may either effect the what of functions or the how of functions. A differentiation between these material and formal aspects of functional competence are essential with respect to recovery or restitution of function.

Algorithms↗
PubMed2006

APP23 mice display working memory impairment in the plus-shaped water maze.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients typically present short-term memory deficits, before long-term memory capacity declines with disease progression. Several studies have described learning and memory deficits in the APP23 mouse model. Our group reported a decline of learning and memory capacities from the age of 3 months onwards using a hidden-platform Morris water maze (MWM). The aim of the present study was to evaluate working and reference memory in APP23 mice in the same plus-shaped water maze. The transgenic mice had slower learning curves; however, consolidation of the learned information appeared intact in this learning paradigm. This report demonstrates impairment of working memory in this transgenic Alzheimer model.

Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor↗
PubMed1994

[Memory and benzodiazepines].

Benzodiazepines (BZs) affect acquisition of new information, while retrieval of already learned information is unimpaired. The variability of this effect is important and depends on the nature of the BZ, its dose, the route of administration and the susceptibility of the subject taking the drug. This last factor depends itself on the anxiety level, the age, and a less known idiosyncratic susceptibility of the patient. Finally, there is probably a partial tolerance for the amnestic action of BZs, which explains the fact that the most dramatic amnesias have been described after administration of a single dose of BZ, taken by a patient unaccustomed to BZs. The value of pharmacocinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics in predicting cognitive impairment remains misunderstood, even though in clinical practice the greatest amnestic effects have been described with short-acting BZs. The interest of studying BZs induced amnesia rely upon several arguments: first, it can be an harmful side-effect, which could be avoided or at least predicted by a better knowledge of BZs and the synthesis of new and more specific drugs; secondly it is an interesting model of organic amnesia, which could allow a better understanding of normal memory.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Information-integration category learning in patients with striatal dysfunction.

Information-integration category learning was examined in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and in healthy control participants in 2 different conditions. In the linear condition, optimal categorization required a nonverbalizable linear integration of information from the 2 stimulus dimensions, whereas in the nonlinear condition, a nonlinear integration of information was required. Each participant completed 600 trials in each condition and was given corrective feedback following each trial. Results indicated that PD patients were not impaired in the linear condition across all trials, whereas the same patients were impaired in the nonlinear condition, but only later in training. The authors conducted model-based analyses to identify participants who used an information-integration approach, and a comparison of the accuracy rates of those individuals further revealed a specific deficit in information-integration category learning in patients with PD. These findings suggest that the striatum may be particularly involved in information-integration category learning when the rule is highly complex.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

Implicit learning of complex information in amnesia.

Implicit learning abilities of nine amnesic patients were explored by using an artificial grammar learning task in which the test strings were constructed in such a way that grammaticality judgments could not be based on a simple knowledge of bigrams and trigrams (chunks). Results show that amnesic patients and controls performed at the same level during the classification task, whereas amnesic patients performed worse than controls in an explicit generation task. Moreover, there was no correlation between the implicit and explicit measures. These results are compatible with the existence of two kinds of representation intervening in artificial grammar learning. The first one based on processes leading to fragment-specific knowledge (the chunks, which can be accessed explicitly), and the second based on the learning of simple associations and more complex conditional relations between elements.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

The clinician's role in meeting patient information needs: suggested learning outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Patients have always fulfilled their information needs from a variety of different sources over time. Clinician-patient consultations are one part of that process. Some patients have increasing opportunities to obtain information through new sources such as the internet, touch-screens, and patient-held records. Others remain poorly informed. OBJECTIVES: To identify learning outcomes for clinicians in meeting patient information needs and working with well-informed patients. DESIGN: Four-stage multicentre multidisciplinary qualitative study. SETTING AND SUBJECTS: (1) Semistructured interviews with 20 clinicians in Glasgow; (2) semistructured interviews with 52 clinicians in Nottingham and London; (3) testing of consensus by postal questionnaire and Delphi method amongst 37 clinicians in medicine, nursing and the professions allied to medicine, and (4) conference to discuss results. RESULTS: 46 learning outcomes were identified in the eight areas of: placing a higher priority on patient information and education; understanding the patient's information needs and environment; understanding the emotional aspects of learning; developing patient understanding; helping patients to understand about health care and health care information; learning from the patient; knowing about information sources and their use, and issues of multidisciplinary working. CONCLUSIONS: The suggested learning outcomes provide the basis for wider discussion, for possible inclusion in curricula both at undergraduate and continuing education levels, and as the basis for the development of new educational materials.

Communication↗
PubMed2001

Informal and incidental learning with patients who use continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis.

Adults learn continuously from the complex interplay of experiences in their day-to-day lives. This article reports on qualitative research conducted with 8 individuals with a diagnosis of end stage renal disease (ESRD) (6 women, 2 men) who were using continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). Interviews with each individual in his or her home focussed on how the participants made sense and learned from their experiences. The authors examined the data to determine the informal and incidental learning in the patients' homes, as well as the conditions that supported or limited this learning. Learning themes included understanding of medical and professional language, trusting their own experience, and living on the border of life and death. Barriers to learning included a diminished sense of personhood and the low literacy level of participants. Aspects of informal and incidental learning theory (Watkins & Marsick, 1992) are used to examine the informal learning that occurred. The authors acknowledge the adult learning implications and urge nurses to examine informal learning more closely.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

Category number impacts rule-based but not information-integration category learning: further evidence for dissociable category-learning systems.

Category number effects on rule-based and information-integration category learning were investigated. Category number affected accuracy and the distribution of best-fitting models in the rule-based task but had no effect on accuracy and little effect on the distribution of best-fining models in the information-integration task. In the 2 category conditions, rule-based learning was better than information-integration learning, whereas in the 4 category conditions, unidimensional and conjunctive rule-based learning was worse than information-integration learning. Rule-based strategies were used in the 2-category/rule-based condition, but about half of the observers used rule-based strategies in the 4-category unidimensional and conjunctive rule-based conditions. Information-integration strategies were used in the 4-category/ information-integration condition and by the end of training were used in the 2-category/information-integration condition.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Improving information management in family practice: testing an adult learning model.

Information management training has been neglected in family practice in the UK in the past. An adult learning model for such training is introduced. A pilot study using the adult learning approach showed improvements in information management processes over the six-month study period. The research project described in this paper compares the effectiveness of on-site training using adult learning methods, written information, and no intervention, in 33 family practices in the UK. Nine of the eleven practices in the on-site training group completed the training sessions and eight provided full data, whereas only one of the eleven practices in the written information group, and only one of the eleven practices in the control group provided full data. Preliminary analysis demonstrates that on-site training practices made considerable changes to the information systems in their practices, and appreciated the importance of high-quality data, both for patient care and reporting requirements. Full comparisons of data quality and information management methods are presented, and an assessment of priority training needs for maximum benefit is made.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Informativeness and the learning of bipolar adjectives.

The effects of informativeness upon the learning of bipolar adjectives were examined by asking 20 preschoolers to learn novel words descriptive of different lengths vs tensions of a coiled spring. The set of adjectives which contrasted most highly for informativeness showed the greatest asymmetry for successful learning.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1986

Using structured medical information to improve students' problem-solving performance.

In the study reported here, the authors assessed the use of efficient organization of knowledge and of problem-solving strategies to enhance medical students' clinical problem-solving skills. Thirty-five preclinical medical students were randomly assigned to a experimental or control group and given a knowledge base containing information on eight congenital heart diseases to learn. Information for the experimental group emphasized disease groupings (based on their similar clinical presentation), symptom-disease associations, and clinical problem-solving heuristics. The same information for the control group was presented in a textbook format that emphasized the pathophysiology of the diseases. The students then diagnosed three computerized diagnostic problems of varying difficulty while verbalizing their problem-solving strategies. The results showed that the experimental group acquired a higher ratio of diagnostic to nondiagnostic cues, mentioned the correct diagnosis sooner in their workups, and correctly diagnosed the most difficult case more often than the control group. These results provide support for revisions in the organization and presentation of information that are aimed at improving clinical problem-solving skills.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed1998

Severe childhood sexual abuse and nonverbal learning disability.

This article offers a review of, and case report on, the treatment of a young adult with a history of severe childhood abuse, dissociative symptoms, and right-hemisphere dysfunction, or nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD). The core of nonverbal learning disabilities is the inability to synthesize information and create meaning from complex information. Learning is a form of adaptation and disruptions in an individual's meaning-making process. There are major implications for the person's overall adjustment. Trauma is itself complex and often damaging to the survivor's well being. Clinical assessment must take into account a person's cognitive style and possible learning deficits in order to adequately address traumatic material. Therapy must be modified in order to respond to the unique learning style of the NLD client. Finally, and important issue for therapists remains their willingness to broaden their awareness and knowledge base, and shift the treatment paradigm to meet the needs of the client with neurocognitive vulnerabilities. Treating clients with difficult trauma histories' alone, can elicit negative reactions in the therapist. Repeated experiences with a client's mistrust, anger, noncompliance or self-defeating habits are particularly stressful. The neuropsychological perspective can provide a valuable tool in the mastery of those reactions, and in building a context for empathy and a joint narrative.

Adjustment Disorders↗
PubMed1987

An evaluation of the effectiveness of cardiac teaching during hospitalization.

This evaluation demonstrated that inpatient teaching programs can be effective for short-term outcomes. In this evaluation, patients readily learned information that prepared them to deal with postoperative experiences, that is, ambulation, exercise, resumption of sexual activity, and symptoms to report indicating lack of tolerance to such activities. Areas that showed limited knowledge gain were those that required long-term behavioral change, such as stress modification and dietary changes. These findings are particularly relevant when considered in the light of contemporary events in the payment environment. As lengths of stay decrease and acuity levels increase for hospitalized patients, inpatient teaching must be limited to what is possible and reasonable; that is, what is possible for the staff to teach during the short length of stay and what is reasonable for patients to learn given their acuity. This evaluation was conducted for decision-making purposes about a specific cardiac teaching program. Although the evaluation met the purposes of the evaluators, some of the findings suggested possible research hypotheses. A tightly controlled research study should be conducted using the knowledge acquisition test in clinical settings and accounting for such variables as educational level, years of coronary artery disease, severity of illness, and age. Further study could also be undertaken to validate the finding that hospitalized patients learned priority information necessary for adequate functioning immediately after discharge. With regard to patient confidence level and actual behavior change, a study could be conducted to determine if there is a relationship between patients' reported confidence at discharge and their subsequent behavior.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1989

Hebbian learning reconsidered: representation of static and dynamic objects in associative neural nets.

According to Hebb's postulate for learning, information presented to a neural net during a learning session is stored in synaptic efficacies. Long-term potentiation occurs only if the postsynaptic neuron becomes active in a time window set up by the presynaptic one. We carefully interpret and mathematically implement the Hebb rule so as to handle both stationary and dynamic objects such as single patterns and cycles. Since the natural dynamics contains a rather broad distribution of delays, the key idea is to incorporate these delays in the learning session. As theory and numerical simulations show, the resulting procedure is surprisingly robust and faithful. It also turns out the pure Hebbian learning is by selection: the network produces synaptic representations that are selected according to their resonance with the input percepts.

Humans↗
PubMed1990

Hippocampal representation in place learning.

The generality of the place-learning impairment associated with hippocampal system damage was challenged using methods of training that permitted subjects to form an individual association between the place of escape and a particular navigational route in an open-field water maze. Both normal rats and rats with fornix lesions (FX rats) acquired this task rapidly, although FX rats were slightly slower in achieving minimum escape latencies. In postcriterion testing, FX rats occasionally made near misses but, more often, their escape performance was indistinguishable from that of intact rats. Results from a variety of probe tests indicated that FX rats, like normal rats, had based their performance on a representation of multiple distal cues but their representation, unlike that of normal rats, was inflexible in that it could not be used to guide performance when the cues or starting position were altered. These results parallel those from other studies of hippocampal function in animals and humans: The learning deficit consequent to hippocampal system damage (1) is not specific to a particular category of learning materials, but is dependent on the representational demands of the task; (2) is observed when task demands encourage a representation based on relations among multiple cues, but not when the task encourages adaptation to an individual (or compound) stimulus; (3) spares acquisition of fundamental procedures needed to perform the task; and (4) impairs the flexible use of learned information in tests other than repetition of the learning experience.

Animals↗