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PubMed1984

Overt and covert verbalization in normal and learning disabled children's problem solving.

The problem-solving ability of 18 learning-disabled high school students was increased by instructions to verbalize overtly, but not by instructions to verbalize their actions covertly. This suggests that Vygotsky's 1962 "internalization-of-speech" perspective may be as useful in understanding the limitations of disabled learners as it has been in understanding the limitations of young learners.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Aging and skilled problem solving.

Information-processing models of problem solving too often are based on restrictive age ranges. On the other hand, gerontologists have investigated few problem-solving tasks and have rarely generated explicit models. As this article demonstrates, both fields can benefit by closer collaboration. One major issue in gerontology is whether aging is associated with irreversible decrement or developmental plasticity. If both processes occur, then an appropriate strategy for investigating aging is to equate age groups for molar problem-solving performance and search for differences in the underlying components. This strategy was adopted to examine the relation of age and skill to problem solving in chess. Chess players were selected to vary widely in age and skill such that these variables were uncorrelated. Problem-solving and memory tasks were administered. Skill level was the only significant predictor for accuracy in both a choose-a-move task and a speeded end-game evaluation task. Age (negatively) and skill (positively) jointly determined performance in an unexpected recall task. Efficient chunking in recall was positively related to skill, though negatively related to age. Recognition confidence, though not accuracy, was negatively related to age. Thus despite age-related declines in encoding and retrieval of information, older players match the problem-solving performance of equivalently skilled younger players. Apparently, they can search the problem space more efficiently, as evidenced by taking less time to select an equally good move. Models of chess skill that stress that role of encoding efficiency, as indexed by chunking in recall, need to be modified to account for performance over the life span.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

Problems of research into medical problem solving: some remarks on theory and method.

Investigators of medical problem solving, and of problem solving in general, appear to use the term problem solving to denote different concepts. Medical problem solving sometimes refers to the doctor solving the patient's problem, whereas others use it to refer to the doctor solving his own diagnostic problem. Second, 'problem' is used by some in a subjective sense (something is only called a problem if the subject has difficulties with it), and by others in an objective sense (problem being nearly synonymous with task). Finally, there is the definitional question of whether knowledge and problem solving are regarded as independent or as intimately related. What one means by problem solving, with one's research objectives (research may be aimed at medical education, medical practice or cognitive theory), constitute the major determinants of the choice of research design. It is advocated that investigators, before selecting a research design, should clarify their own definitions and research objectives, and before adopting other investigators' definitions and research designs, should consider carefully their research objectives.

Education, Medical↗
PubMed2006

Do provocateurs' emotion displays influence children's social goals and problem solving?

The social goals and social problem-solving of children who varied in social adjustment were examined in the context of hypothetical ambiguous provocation situations in which provocateurs' emotion displays were systematically manipulated. Children rated the importance of six different social goals and explained how they would solve the problems. Social adjustment was measured with rating and nomination sociometric procedures. Rejected-aggressive, rejected-nonaggressive, average-nonaggressive, and popular-nonaggressive children showed both commonalities and differences in rating the six social goals, the relative importance of the six social goals, and social problem-solving depending on the provocateur's emotion display. When provocateurs were happy, there were few group differences, but when provocateurs were angry or sad, rejected-aggressive children: a) rated hostile/instrumental goals more positively; b) rated prosocial goals less positively; and c) made problem-solving responses that were less friendly than those of other children. Results are discussed in relation to Lemerise and Arsenio's (2000) model of emotion and social information processing.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Measurement of problem-solving deficits in adults with acquired brain damage.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the relative utility of conventional neuropsychological and social problem-solving approaches to measuring functional problem solving deficits in individuals with acquired brain damage (ABD). DESIGN: In Study I, scores for individuals with ABD were compared to scores for control and normative samples. In Study II, pre- and posttest scores were compared for individuals with ABD who completed a program of outpatient cognitive rehabilitation. PARTICIPANTS: In Study I, individuals with ABD were compared to healthy controls. In Study II, pre- and posttreatment assessments were obtained for 34 individuals with ABD. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Two approaches were used, conventional neuropsychological (WAIS-R/II Comprehension subtest and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test) and social problem solving (Problem Solving Inventory and Rusk Problem Solving Role Play Test). RESULTS: In Study I, the ABD group demonstrated significant deficits on both social problem solving measures; however, neither conventional neuropsychological measure detected significant deficits in the ABD group, relative to control and normative groups. In Study II, significant treatment gains were demonstrated on both social problem-solving measures, however neither conventional neuropsychological measure was sensitive to improvements in functional problem-solving ability. CONCLUSIONS: In higher-level cognitive rehabilitation settings, the evaluation of functional problem-solving deficits in individuals with ABD can be facilitated by augmenting neuropsychological test data with results from social problem-solving measures.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Evaluative factors in social problem solving by aggressive boys.

Components of social problem solving (problem definition, generation and prioritization of solutions, and generation and evaluation of consequences) were assessed in high aggressive and low aggressive boys from grades 2-3 and 5-6. When compared with their low aggressive peers, high aggressive boys at both grade levels were more likely to (1) define social problems based on the perception that others were hostilely-motivated adversaries, (2) generate few consequences for exhibiting aggression, (3) choose a "second-best" solution that was rated as ineffective, and (4) evaluate their own affective reactions to self-generated consequences of aggression as "wouldn't care" or as not "unhappy." In addition, within the group of aggressive boys, problem definition was found to be significantly related to both number of solutions generated and effectiveness of solutions that subjects chose as best and second-best. These findings are discussed in terms of early patterns of cognitive mediation that differentiate high aggressive children from their low aggressive peers.

Affect↗
PubMed2005

Supporting family caregivers in stroke care: a review of the evidence for problem solving.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Teaching effective problem-solving skills to family caregivers of patients with chronic disease has been shown to be useful for promoting physical and psychosocial well-being. However, the use and effectiveness of problem solving for supporting caregivers in stroke care has not been reviewed. This article aims to identify and review studies that have examined the effectiveness of teaching problem solving skills to caregivers in stroke care, highlight gaps in the evidence base, and recommend avenues for additional research. METHODS: A structured review of literature identified from nursing, medicine, and psychology databases from 1970 to 2004 was conducted. Eleven articles reporting the development or evaluation of effective problem-solving interventions for caregivers of patients with stroke were critically appraised using recognized quality criteria. RESULTS: The results of this review show that the strength of evidence for problem-solving interventions for caregivers of stroke patients is limited. Because some studies used small samples and varied methods and interventions, making a comparison was difficult. Caregivers' problem-solving abilities were rarely measured, and the theoretical concepts and framework underpinning most studies were unclear. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence from the review suggests a need to additionally study the link between theoretical concepts of effective problem solving and outcomes using standardized measures and to examine also the processes involved in implementing the intervention using multimethod designs, including both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1993

When less is more: representation and selective memory in expert problem solving.

Few studies of problem-solving expertise in professional domains have undertaken independent assessments of how domain-specific knowledge contributes to the development of problem representations as well as subsequent memory for task information. These issues were investigated in the present study by asking participants at three levels of training and experience (novice, trainee, and expert) in a medical specialty to solve two complex diagnostic problems (patient cases) selected from medical records of a university hospital. The subjects were also asked to provide an incidental free recall of the patient information contained in each case immediately after problem solving and one week later. Problem representations (identified as "lines of reasoning") used by each subject in each case were determined from an analysis of thinking-aloud protocols generated during problem solving. The three groups did not differ on the overall amount of case information recalled at the immediate retention test and did not show selective recall for information statements that were directly relevant to the lines of reasoning used during problem solving. After one week, however, the expert physicians remembered fewer information units than novices but showed selective retention for case information contained in the lines of reasoning used to reach a diagnosis. Experts also increased their recall of specific diagnostic interpretations contained in their initial problem-solving experience while novices did not demonstrate evidence of their problem representations in recalling case information.

Cardiology↗
PubMed1992

The California Family Health Project: V. Family problem solving and adult health.

This article explores the relationship between family Problem Solving and the Health of adults in a community-based sample of 225 families. Family Problem Solving refers to the ways in which the family conducts itself to resolve a shared problem. Sixteen observer ratings of family Problem-Solving behavior during a 30-minute task were developed, based on the Simulated Family Activity Measure (SIM-FAM), and good interrater agreement was achieved. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) yielded a set of three well-constructed, interpretable dimensions: Problem-Solving Effectiveness, Problem-Solving Style, and Sociomotor Activity. Multidimensional scaling analyses (MDS) suggested that family problem-solving behavior involved an organized, means-end sequence of family behaviors in which aspects of style served problem-solving effectiveness. All 16 Problem-Solving variables were analyzed with a set of 14 health variables, for husbands and wives separately, using canonical correlation. No subset of Problem-Solving variables was significantly associated with a subset of Health variables for either husbands or wives, although there was a significant association between the two sets of variables when taken as a whole. Given previous research on family Problem Solving, we conclude that the absence of significant associations between particular aspects of family Problem Solving and Health may be due to our use of a community-based rather than a stressed or clinical sample. Associations between Family Problem Solving and Health might best be viewed in the context of other family variables.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

The perceived problem solving ability and values of student nurses and midwives.

Problem solving is defined as a response given in an important and difficult situation, where critical thinking is required for a solution. Problem solving skills determine a person's ability to relate productively. This research was to determine the perceived problem solving ability and values of student nurses and midwives. It was planned as a descriptive research project in the University of Kocaeli's, Higher School of Health (Nursing and Midwifery School) in order to find out how students perceive their own problem solving skills, and to examine the relationship between problem solving skills and personal values. The data were collected from 218 students by using a questionnaire to determine the characteristics of the students and the "Problem Solving Inventory" (developed by Heppner and Petersen [Journal of Counseling Psychology 29 (1) (1982) 66]) whose reliability and validity for our country had been tested by Sahin et al. (1993) The scores of the subjects were evaluated and analyzed. Students who describe themselves in accordance with the values of truth (14.2%) and human dignity (19.3%) were also found to evaluate themselves successful in problem solving. Students who expressed that they act systematically (44.5%) and decisively (74.3%) in problem solving were also found to evaluate themselves as successful (47.8%) in problem solving. The results of our study have shown that education in professional ethics should provide the development of professional values (especially of truth and human dignity). Concerning value-laden issues education should help students to reach the desired levels of problem solving skills by allowing them to acquire abilities such as self awareness and being inquisitive.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

The effects of a cognitive strategy intervention on the problem-solving abilities of delinquent youths.

Social problem-solving skills and a self-evaluation procedure were taught to institutionalized delinquent adolescents as part of a cognitive-behavioral therapy program. A multiple-baseline design across subjects and an alternating-treatments design were used. Five youths participated in the program in which hypothetical social dilemmas were presented in individual sessions. In addition, the effects of intervention on the youths' self-recorded personal problem-solving was assessed. Training involved the acquisition of a problem-solving strategy for the hypothetical dilemmas. Self-evaluation was later introduced through a checklist procedure. All youths showed improvement during the training of problem-solving on the hypothetical dilemmas. The self-evaluation procedure had little effect on performance. Some youths generalized their use of the problem-solving strategy to the untrained problems during the alternating-treatments condition. Follow-up data suggested that maintenance of treatment gains occurred for all youths. The generalization of improved skills to personal problem-solving also occurred for some youths. General improvements in youths' social behavior outside of therapy sessions were suggested by anecdotal information that showed improved rates of progress through the institution's behavioral level system.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1980

The medical problem solving process.

Understanding the medical problem solving process has implications for medical education and the effectiveness of medical services. Through adaptation to the task at hand the human problem solver is able to ameliorate the effects of inherent limitations. In adapting to the medical problem solving task demands related to diagnosis and therapy, the physician uses the hypotheticodeductive process. The process draws upon the problem solver's disease centered and data centered knowledge and can be made more effective through the use of various heuristic rules and strategies that the physician develops with increasing expertise. Additional and more refined modes of laboratory support for the medical problem solver can evolve through further understanding of the problem solving process.

Clinical Laboratory Techniques↗
PubMed2006

Task uncertainty and rationality in medical problem solving.

QUALITY ISSUE: Medical problem-solving situations are characterized by various degrees of 'task uncertainty'--i.e. uncertainty related to the definition of a problem, the effect of a technology, the value of a solution, and so on. The need for professional discretion varies and depends on the degree of perceived task uncertainty. SUGGESTED SOLUTION: In this report it is argued that, in order to obtain rationality in problem-solving processes, differences in the degree of task uncertainty need to be met by variation in the structure of the health care organization. IMPLICATIONS: The main implications of this view are that (under norms of rationality) problem-solving processes with low task uncertainty must be organized in one way and processes with high task uncertainty in another. Furthermore, processes with high and low task uncertainty also need to be evaluated according to different standards. Some hypotheses regarding the different organizational requirements are presented.

Humans↗
PubMed2000

Metacognitive knowledge about problem-solving methods.

BACKGROUND: The effective application of a problem-solving method requires the knowledge of what task is relevant, what the abilities involved are and how much effort is needed. However, as yet too little is known about these metacognitive representations. AIM: This study was aimed at describing beliefs about problem-solving methods and at assessing whether they vary according to the kind of method and of problem and are modified by psychological courses attended. SAMPLE: Forty-six Italian undergraduates in psychology and 37 in non-psychological disciplines. METHODS: Participants had to rate how frequently each of five problem-solving methods (free production, analogy, step-by-step analysis, visualisation and combining) is employed and how effective and easy each one is to apply. Ratings were requested for interpersonal, practical and study problems. Participants were also asked to identify which abilities they thought would be involved in each method. RESULTS: According to students' ratings, the most frequently used problem-solving method was analogy, which was also considered the easiest method to apply, whereas step-by-step analysis and combining were considered the most difficult. Problem-solving techniques were perceived as being relevant above all for practical problems, whereas they were conceived as less suitable for interpersonal problems. For study problems the most relevant strategy was step-by-step analysis. Students were aware of the abilities relevant to each problem-solving method. CONCLUSIONS: Undergraduates both in psychology and non-psychological disciplines can identify some critical features in the methods used to solve problems, even though some misconceptions emerged. Since metacognition plays a causal role in problem-solving, trainers should take into account trainees' folk representations of problem-solving strategies.

Adult↗