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PubMed1993

Police referral to psychiatric emergency services and its effect on disposition decisions.

OBJECTIVE: Some clinicians and researchers have questioned the appropriateness of police referrals to psychiatric emergency services and have suggested that police exercise undue influence on hospital admission decisions. The purpose of this study was to test these assertions. METHODS: Research clinicians in nine emergency services in California observed staff evaluations of 772 cases and rated patients' symptom severity, danger to self or others, and grave disability. They also reviewed the criminal justice records of these patients both before and for 18 months after the index evaluation. A total of 186 patients referred by police were compared with 577 patients not referred by police. RESULTS: Patients brought by police were more likely to be subsequently hospitalized, but they were also more psychiatrically disturbed. They were more dangerous to others and more gravely disabled. They were no more likely to have a criminal record than patients not referred by police. CONCLUSIONS: Police did not exercise undue influence on dispositions nor were the patients they brought in more "criminal" than others.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

Recording by the police of violent offences; an Accident and Emergency Department perspective.

The British Crime Surveys have demonstrated that police-derived crime statistics are an unreliable indicator of the true number of violent offences in society. We therefore investigated police recording of consecutive victims of violence who sought treatment in a large Accident and Emergency (A & E) Department. Of victims assaulted within the boundaries of the inner-city Police Division, only one quarter were recorded by the police, though half claimed police awareness of the incident. Proportionately fewer assaults which occurred in the street, in discoteques or on Saturdays were recorded, in comparison to assaults which occurred in other locations and on other days. Proportionately more female victims were recorded, compared to males. A & E data provide a useful insight into the efficiency and effectiveness of inner-city policing. Victims Support Schemes should liaise with A & E Departments as well as with the police.

Emergency Service, Hospital↗

PubMed1996

Drinking by police officers, general drivers and late-night drivers.

OBJECTIVE: This study compares police officers' reported alcohol use with similar reports from age- and gender-matched samples from the general driving population (GDP) and drivers recruited at high-risk hours who are most likely to drink and drive (roadside drivers). METHOD: Data were derived from interviews with 239 police officers who spent at least 5% of their time on alcohol or traffic enforcement; 243 subjects from the GDP, selected by random-digit dialing; and 249 drivers recruited at roadside on Friday and Saturday nights between 10:00 PM and 3:00 AM. RESULTS: Officers report drinking less frequently and in smaller quantities than either of the driver samples. Differences between police and general drivers are modest: e.g., usual frequency of drinking (1 to < 3 vs 3 or 4 times/month; p < or = .001) and number of days/average month with > or = 2 drinks/day (mean = 2.5 [+/- 3.4] vs 4.9 [+/- 6.5]; p < or = .001). There are greater differences between police officers and roadside drivers: e.g., 14.2% and 2.4%, respectively, abstain (vs 15.6% of general drivers; police vs general drivers; NS; police and general drivers vs roadside drivers, p < or = .001). CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that officers' drinking differs significantly from that of drivers most likely to be driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI). If this is so, police training programs pertaining to DUI and other alcohol-related offenses should pay explicit attention to the effects of alcohol and not assume that all officers have experienced them.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

A test of worker policing theory in an advanced eusocial wasp, Vespula rufa.

Mutual policing is an important mechanism for maintaining social harmony in group-living organisms. In some ants, bees, and wasps, workers police male eggs laid by other workers in order to maintain the reproductive primacy of the queen. Kin selection theory predicts that multiple mating by the queen is one factor that can selectively favor worker policing. This is because when the queen is mated to multiple males, workers are more closely related to queen's sons than to the sons of other workers. Here we provide an additional test of worker policing theory in Vespinae wasps. We show that the yellowjacket Vespula rufa is characterized by low mating frequency, and that a significant percentage of the males are workers' sons. This supports theoretical predictions for paternities below 2, and contrasts with other Vespula species, in which paternities are higher and few or no adult males are worker produced, probably due to worker policing, which has been shown in one species, Vespula vulgaris. Behavioral observations support the hypothesis that V. rufa has much reduced worker policing compared to other Vespula. In addition, a significant proportion of worker-laid eggs were policed by the queen.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Characterization of age-related changes in the gut microbiome and metabolome of Kunming dogs and their associations with police performance.

BACKGROUND: Gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in regulating the host's central nervous system (CNS) activity and behavior. However, its influence on the police performance of Kunming dogs and the underlying mechanisms remain largely unexplored. This study was the first to apply multi-omics technologies to investigate the dynamic variations in gut microbiota and their metabolic profiles across different ages of Kunming dogs. Furthermore, we systematically examined the associations between these microbial alterations and police performance metrics, providing a theoretical foundation for enhancing the working capabilities of Kunming dogs through targeted modulation of intestinal microecology. RESULTS: The study showed that puppies, young dogs and adult dogs had significantly better police performance than elderly dogs, with young dogs exhibiting the highest scores. Analysis of 16S rRNA sequencing demonstrated that gut microbial diversity and stability were highest during the young dog stage, gradually declining with age. Metagenomic analysis revealed that the abundance of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus johnsonii, Limosilactobacillus reuteri, Ligilactobacillus animalis and Muribaculum gordoncarteri were strongly correlated with police performance. The results of metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) indicated that the above species have functional genes involved in GABAergic and glutamatergic synapse pathways. Furthermore, metabolomic analysis showed that differential metabolites were enriched in the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway, in which GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid), histamine and tyramine metabolites were positively correlated with the above species and police performance. CONCLUSION: The species L. acidophilus, L. johnsonii, L. reuteri, L. animalis, and M. gordoncarteri, which were enriched in the gut of puppies and young Kunming dogs, may potentially influence the nervous system through the production of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, suggesting a possible association with police performance. Video Abstract.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Impact of long work hours on police officers and the communities they serve.

BACKGROUND: Police officers in the United States often are overly fatigued because of long and erratic work hours, shift work, and insufficient sleep. These factors likely contribute to elevated levels of morbidity and mortality, psychological disorders, and family dysfunction observed among police. Fatigue-related impairments to officer performance and decision making can generate unexpected social and economic costs. METHODS: Information was gathered from the literature and analysis of government data as well as meetings with sleep researchers, police executives, and union officials in order to understand the causes and consequences of police long work hours. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Long work hours and shift work threaten police officer health, safety, and performance. This situation is aggravated by understaffing associated with demographic shifts and new threats to homeland security. Ongoing research suggests that the police may be a useful model occupational group for basic and applied research on sleep, fatigue, and human performance.

Aged↗

PubMed2001

Physical child abuse in Sweden: a study of police reports between 1986 and 1996.

BACKGROUND: This study aims at investigating physical child abuse in Sweden during 1986-1996, a period when alarm was being raised about an increased number of police reports on physical child abuse. The study focuses on abuse committed by a parent or carer and aims at analyzing the victim and the perpetrator, family environment, injuries and judicial consequences of physical abuse. METHOD: All police reports on physical child abuse (0-14 years old) in a designated police district in Sweden during 1986-1996 were examined, as well as any judicial proceedings that followed. RESULTS: Our research yielded three major findings. Firstly, a large part of the increased number of police reports had to do with violence outside the family: 145 children (0.5 per 1000 children) were found abused within the families, by a parent or a carer. Secondly, there was a tendency toward males abusing boys and females abusing girls, and the biological father was the most frequent suspected perpetrator. Thirdly, 20% of the police reports led to prosecutions, and the investigations were time consuming. Known risk factors for physical abuse, such as unemployment, violent spouse relations, substance and drug abuse and poor mental health were found in several families, often among the prosecuted perpetrators. When examining incidence of physical abuse, Sweden was comparable to the other Scandinavian countries, where legislation and social context are similar. CONCLUSIONS: The numbers of physically abused children that have been reported to the police in Sweden has increased during the investigated period. Familiar risk factors are present in our study, accompanied by new findings, such as, for instance, a gender preference towards the abuse victim.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

A survey of quality of life and depression for police officers in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: The enormous job stress of police work may result in depression, which is highly correlated with work disability and poor quality of life. We investigated the quality of life, the probability of depression, and the related risk factors for police officers in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. METHODS: We used the 12-item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-12) and the Disaster-Related Psychological Screening Test (DRPST) to assess the quality of life and prevalence of depression for 832 police officers in Kaohsiung. RESULTS: The estimated rate of probable major depression was 21.6% (180/832). Those with an educational level of university or above and nondepressed police officers had higher scores in every subscale for quality of life. Police officers older than 50 had higher scores in the mental aspects of quality of life. Family problems and job stress related to achievement, peer pressure about performance, and heavy workloads were predictive factors for depression. CONCLUSION: Police officers might have a higher estimated rate of depression than previously thought, and those with depression have a poorer quality of life.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

A comparison of hospital and police road injury data.

In order to gather as much information as possible on road crashes and outcomes, routinely collected police reports of traffic accidents and hospital discharge files were individually matched or "linked" using a computerised iterative procedure on name-identified data from both sources. The two groups of linked and unlinked hospital records were compared. Within the linked dataset, a comparison of like variables was made and showed good agreement between the two sources on accident type and road user type. However, police-reported levels of injury severity were shown to be less reliable. In addition, the proportion of hospital inpatient records that linked to a police record was found to be influenced by several factors. The overall linkage rate from hospital to police was 64% but varied from 29% for motorcyclists in single-vehicle accidents to 79% for motor vehicle drivers. The linkage rate increased with increasing levels of injury severity and was substantially lower for casualties of certain ethnic groups. It was deduced that for most instances where a hospital record did not link to a police record, the crash had not been reported. These findings confirm that there was considerable underreporting of hospitalised road casualties to the police and that the extent of underreporting was greater for those less severely injured.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Police perception of intoxication among injured pedestrians.

To assess police officers' accuracy in perceiving alcohol or drug intoxication of injured pedestrians, blood test results from pedestrians struck by vehicles and admitted to a Level I trauma center for a 3-year period were linked to police reports of the crashes. Police officers were 64.5% sensitive and 99.3% specific in identifying alcohol use in injured pedestrians when blood tests were positive for alcohol, and 2.2% sensitive and 100% specific in identifying other drug use when blood tests were positive for drugs other than alcohol. Those with higher blood ethanol levels were more often correctly assessed to be under the influence. Injury Severity Score and the presence of head injuries had no apparent effect on police assessments. In conclusion, police assessment of substance abuse is extremely specific, but not particularly sensitive. Efforts are needed to improve police evaluations. The effect of increased legal actions on recurrent alcohol and drug-related injuries remains to be seen.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2005

Near miss incidents in police custody suites in London in 2003: a feasibility study.

INTRODUCTION: Potentially preventable deaths in police custody include those which involve illicit drugs, alcohol and deliberate self-harm. Near miss incidents (NMI) that did not result in death have a crucial role in understanding risk factors in custody. Such research has not previously been undertaken. A program of research has been developed to study NMI, in order to better identify those at risk in police custody. For the purposes of this research, NMI have been defined as 'an unplanned and unforeseeable or unforeseen event that could have resulted, but did not result, in human death or may have resulted in injury or other adverse outcomes'. It was intended that the definition although broad, would not include simple accidents (e.g. slipping on urine in a cell) or trivial injury. AIMS AND METHODS: The two aims of the study are (a) to determine whether it is realistic to attempt to assess NMI with the intention of identifying information of use in enhancing detainee care and (b) to assess how frequently NMIs occur and whether there are specific patterns. Pilot interviews were conducted with three forensic physicians practising in London, UK to create a structured questionnaire for all forensic physicians working in London. The questionnaire provided the basis of a retrospective recall survey of all forensic physicians working in London as Forensic Medical Examiners. The questionnaire was designed to assess the numbers of NMI, patterns in occurrence and relevant learning points within the previous 6 months. A covering letter, background questionnaire (exploring the background of the medical practitioner), copies of the survey, and reply paid envelopes were sent to each Forensic Medical Examiner (n=134) in London, contracted to provide forensic medical services for the Metropolitan Police Service. Data about all incidents were anonymized. RESULTS: Ninety six (73%) Forensic Medical Examiners responded. Of these 18% were Principal grade, the remainder were Senior (24%), Standard (35%) and Assistant (23%). Thirty eight NMI were reported by 27 Forensic Medical Examiners (of all levels). The initial reason for police contact was recorded as alcohol (n=8), theft and robbery (n=7), warrants (n=4), violence (n=3), traffic violations (n=2) and single cases of drugs, murder and immigration offences. Of the main perceived cause of each NMI, illicit drugs were involved in 12/38, alcohol in 17/38, deliberate self-harm in 11/38, issues concerning searches, checks or rousing in 8/38, failure of inter-agency communications in 5/38, and possible resource issues in 4/38. In a number of cases more than one factor was involved. CONCLUSIONS: The information established about NMI is broadly consistent with documented patterns of deaths in police custody in England and Wales which supports the validity of the data. The next stage of this research will be a prospective six month study in which NMI will be analysed in order to learn lessons which may be utilised to attempt to prevent potentially avoidable deaths in police custody.

Accident Prevention↗

PubMed2005

The impact of a police drug crackdown on drug injectors' ability to practice harm reduction: a qualitative study.

This paper employs qualitative methods to explore the ramifications of a police drug crackdown on drug injectors' ability to practice harm reduction. Between August and December 2000, we conducted open-ended interviews with 40 illicit-drug-injecting residents of a New York City police precinct undergoing a crackdown. Interview topics included participants' experiences with police in the precinct and their drug use practices. Grounded theory methods were used to analyze resulting transcripts. Because place emerged as a salient analytic category, we also drew on elements of social geography to interpret results. The analysis suggests that particular crackdown tactics, notably frequent police searches of participants' bodies and elevated surveillance of the precinct's public spaces, reconfigured participants' experiences of their bodies and the public spaces comprising the precinct in ways that adversely affected their capacity to engage in harm reduction. Frequent police searches, for example, discouraged participants from carrying the injection equipment they needed to ensure that they could inject with a sterile syringe. Constant monitoring of local public spaces made it difficult for homeless women and men to inject safely. Simultaneously, participants expressed support for police actions that reduced public drug activity. Given these findings, we recommend the implementation of strategies, designed by partnerships of community groups and governmental and non-governmental organizations, which reduce public drug activity without imperiling injectors' health. Possible strategies include improving access to treatment and establishing safe injection spaces.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

The western australian road injury database (1987-1996): ten years of linked police, hospital and death records of road crashes and injuries.

Accurate information about injuries and their causes is essential to road safety research, policy development and evaluation. Such information is most powerful when it is available for all road crashes within a jurisdiction. The Western Australian Road Injury Database achieves this through the on-going linkage of crash details from reports to police with the details of injuries to casualties contained in hospital and death records. Over the 10-year period 1987-1996, 386,132 road crashes involving 142,308 casualties were reported to the police in Western Australia. There were also 47,757 hospital discharge records and 2,906 death records related to road crashes during this period. Of the 142,308 police casualties, 17 848 had a matching hospital discharge record and 2,454 had a matching death registration. Linkage within the hospital records revealed that the 47,757 discharge records involved 43,179 individuals, of whom 39,073 were admitted to hospital once, 3,653 were admitted twice, 374 were admitted three times and 78 were admitted more than three times. Of the 43,179 hospitalised casualties, 817 had a matching death record. Linked police, hospital and death records of road crash casualties provide accurate outcome information for casualties in crashes reported to the police. In addition, estimates of under reporting of crashes for different road user groups can be made by comparing hospital records with and without a matching police record. This article demonstrates the power of a linked system to answer complex research questions related to outcome and under-reporting.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2001

Assessment of hospital and police ascertainment of automobile versus childhood pedestrian and bicyclist collisions.

Information about automobile versus pedestrian or bicyclist collisions differ according to the source of collision ascertainment. Hospital records and police reports focus on different characteristics of a collision, which reflects differences in case finding as well as information regarding risk factors. Pedestrians and bicyclists 0-14 years of age who were involved in a motor vehicle collision in the city of Long Beach, CA, between January 1, 1992 and June 30, 1995, were included in the study. Police reports and medical records were used to identify cases. Police reports were found for 1,015 cases, and medical records identified 474 cases; 379 cases were common to both sources. A capture-recapture model was used to evaluate the degree of overlap between the two sources and to derive "ascertainment corrected" injury rates. The injury rate from combined sources was 333.5/100,000 children per year, the pedestrian injury rate was 210.6/100,000 children per year and the bicyclist injury rate was 122.9/100,000 children per year. The "ascertainment corrected" injury rate overall was 381.3/100,000 children per year, 233.0/100,000 for pedestrians and 153.9/100,000 children per year for bicyclists. Eighty percent of hospital-reported cases were captured in the police database, whereas only 37% of police-reported cases were captured by the hospital database. We found that hospital sources identified younger children, fewer bicyclists, more Asian and Hispanic children, and fewer African-American children when compared to police sources. For more comprehensive surveillance resulting in more accurate incidence rates and more complete information, it is better to use multiple sources of data.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2006

[Psychiatric patients and relatives instruct German police officers - an anti-stigma project of "BASTA - the alliance for mentally ill people"].

Contact with police officers due to schizophrenia and resort to violence in such interactions is a common occurrence and represents a source for stigmatisation of mentally ill people. Aim of this project was to establish a program for police officers to reduce that stigma. The seminar was developed by a German anti-stigma organisation in cooperation with sociology teachers of the Bavarian police academy. Evaluations focussed on the police officers "social distance" and "negative stereotypes" towards mentally ill people. The personal contact between officers and the referees (patients, relatives, professionals) was the core of the seminar. Results of a debriefing after the pilot-project was overall positive. Evaluations in the renewal years showed significant improvement within the scale "social distance" (p < 0.0001) and amelioration in the stereotype-categories "violence" and "treatability". The need for special training of the police regarding mental illnesses was acknowledged by all participants. Personal contact of police officers with patients and relatives appeared to be important for the efficacy of this seminar and should become a main focus in similar anti-stigma interventions.

Caregivers↗

PubMed2001

Emergency medicine and police collaboration to prevent community violence.

An important responsibility of emergency departments is the management of injuries sustained in assaults. Most assaults, including many causing serious injury, are not reported and not recorded by the police. This is important because police investigation and the conviction of offenders has a substantial deterrent effect and because information about the circumstances of intentional injury is key to prevention. Recent investigation of ED-police collaboration has shown that many of the injured, and ED staff want offenses to be reported but that there are attitudinal, logistic, and ethical-legal obstacles to achieving this. Organized joint efforts by emergency medicine personnel and police departments, on the basis of a sound legal and ethical framework to protect the rights of both victims and offenders, should deter more violent offenders and would-be violent offenders. They also provide the police with unique aggregate, nonconfidential information that is of substantial help in tackling violence. ED data can be used to measure and refine violence prevention initiatives and are being developed as the basis of a new, independent measure of police performance. Strategies, practical ideas to overcome obstacles, and directions for future research are suggested.

Community Health Planning↗

PubMed2002

Stress reactions in police officers after a disaster rescue operation.

This study intended to determine the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and to report subjective well-being, general distress, and social functioning among police officers 18 months after a rescue operation during a fire at a discotheque. Emotional responses, including self-reported reactions, recorded during and after the fire were analysed. Forty-one police officers participated in the study. They completed a questionnaire and a battery of self-report measures. Psychological distress was recorded using the PTSS-10, IES-R, and GHQ-28. The three scales had a high internal consistency. The police officers were not unaffected by their experiences, and a few officers were still under stress. One police officer had IES-R intrusion and an avoidance score greater than 20, suggesting a stress reaction of clinical significance. When compared with the PTSS-10 scale, two (5%) officers showed a high level of psychological distress. Measured with the GHQ-28, three officers (7%) still had a high level of psychological distress. On one of the four different subscales most of the officers show various degrees of reduced social functioning. Debriefing was carried out by the police department after the fire, and 75% thought debriefing was positive. Eighteen months after the disaster a few police officers are still under stress.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Reliability of police-reported information for determining crash and injury severity.

Posted speed limit and police-reported injury codes are commonly used by researchers to approximate vehicle impact and occupant injury severity. In-depth crash investigations, however, produce more precise measures of crash and injury severity: change in velocity (delta-V) for crash severity and Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) scores for injury severity. A comparison of data from police crash reports with that gathered by National Automotive Sampling System (NASS) investigators highlighted the inadequacy of speed limit and police injury codes as proxies for delta-V and AIS injury severity. In general, delta-V increased with speed limit and higher values of AIS were associated with higher police-coded injury severity, but there were a number of anomalies. In particular, 49% of the drivers coded by police as having incapacitating injuries actually had sustained no more than minor injuries. This overstatement of injury severity was less frequent among male (44%) and elderly (37%) drivers than among female (53%) and nonelderly (50%) drivers. Also, 79% of the investigated vehicles that crashed on roads posted at 60 mph (96 km/h) or higher experienced a delta-V less than 25 mph (40 km/h). Safety studies depending on data from only police reports to establish injury or crash severity therefore could produce erroneous results.

Abbreviated Injury Scale↗