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PubMedDate not supplied

The importance of the measurement of the circumference of arm, arm muscle area and skinfold thickness during puberty.

Several methods are available to study lean and adipose tissue component of the upper arm, but the use of a specific technique is mostly determined by time and financial expense. Besides, anthropometric techniques (arm muscle area, mid-arm circumference and the triceps skinfold thickness), which are the most practical, simple, inexpensive and noninvasive, x-ray, ultrasound scanning, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance images (MRI) are also used to determine separate measures of muscles, adipose tissue, and bone area. These radiographic methods are expensive and suitable only for research studies. This short review will try to stress the importance of the measurement of the circumference of arm, arm muscle area and skinfold thickness during puberty and adolescence.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Validity of skinfold thickness measures of formerly obese adults.

UNLABELLED: To assess the validity of skinfold thickness estimates of body fatness in formerly morbid obese adults, 23 patients (17 women, 6 men) who had completed a protein-sparing modified fast were studied. Mean +/- SD weight loss was 60.7 +/- 20.6 kg for men and 42.6 +/- 11.5 kg for women. Body density and percent body fatness were determined after weight loss according to four commonly used skinfold equations: Pollock (P); Durnin-Rahaman (D-R); Durnin-Womersley (D-W); and, Jackson-Pollock (J-P). The validity of these measurements was assessed by hydrostatic weighing, which revealed a percent body fatness of 20.4 +/- 6.5 for men and 29.8 +/- 8.4 for women. The mean difference and total error (square root of the mean of squared deviations) between skinfold predicted and hydrostatically-determined percent body fatness for each skinfold equation were: P, 2.0 and 4.9; D-R, 4.2 and 6.6; D-W, 7.1 and 8.4; and, J-P, 0.7 and 4.4. With the exception of the latter equation, all significantly overestimated (p less than 0.01) hydrostatically-determined percent body fatness. CONCLUSION: Select skinfold equations may result in a marked overestimation of body fatness in formerly obese patients.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1987

Skinfold thickness and adiposity index in premature infants.

In order to assess the validity of the weight per square of length ratio as an index of adiposity during the neonatal period, 37 premature infants (gestational age, mean +/- SD, = 31.5 +/- 1.1 weeks, birthweight, mean +/- SD, = 1.448 +/- 147 g) were studied for weight, length and skinfold thickness at 5 sites (biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac and quadriceps) during their stay in the Neonatal Unit of the University Hospital in Lausanne. The results show a significant correlation between the adiposity index and the sum of 5 skinfold thickness sites in premature infants. The adiposity index gives a fair estimate of the body fat mass during the postnatal growth in premature infants.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed2004

Assessment of body composition by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, skinfold thickness and creatinine kinetics in chronic kidney disease patients.

BACKGROUND: Finding a method that can be routinely used to assess body composition with minimum error is still a challenge for those who work with chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. This study aimed to compare the value of two surrogate techniques, skinfold thickness (SKF) and creatinine kinetics (CK) with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) as the reference method for measuring body fat and fat-free mass in non-dialysed CKD patients. METHODS: The body fat and fat-free mass of 50 non-dialysed CKD patients (38 male, 12 female) were measured by DEXA and compared with measurements obtained by SKF and CK. RESULTS: The mean values of body fat and fat-free mass obtained by SKF and CK differed significantly from measurements made by DEXA. The intra-class correlation coefficient (r) for body fat between SKF and DEXA (r = 0.74) and between CK and DEXA (r = 0.47) indicated a moderate degree of reproducibility. A Bland and Altman plot analysis showed a better agreement between SKF and DEXA [5.8 +/- 3.9% (-2.0 to 13.6)] than between CK and DEXA [8.8 +/- 8.8% (-8.8 to 26.4)]. Regarding fat-free mass, the intra-class correlation coefficient (r) between SKF and DEXA (r = 0.85) indicated a good degree of reproducibility, while that between SKF and CK (r = 0.57) indicated a moderate degree of reproducibility. The Bland and Altman plot analysis for fat-free mass showed that DEXA agreed better with SKF [-3.1 +/- 3.4 kg (-9.9 to 3.7)] than with CK [-5.5 +/- 6.4 kg (-18.2 to 7.3)]. CONCLUSION: Skinfold thickness seems to be the method of choice for evaluating body fat. The limitations inherent to DEXA in evaluating fat-free mass makes it difficult to designate an alternate method of choice for assessing this body compartment.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed1998

Skinfold thickness measurements are better predictors of body fat percentage than body mass index in male Spanish children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To develop equations, from some simple anthropometric measurements, for the prediction of body density from underwater weighing in male spanish children and adolescents. SUBJECTS: One hundred and seventy-five males, aged 7.0-16.9 y, participated in this study, they were recruited from primary and secondary schools. MEASUREMENTS: Body weight and height and skinfold thicknesses by anthropometry, body density by underwater weighing. RESULTS: Correlations between body density and body mass index (BMI) were high until 14.0-16.9y. Correlations between body density and log sigma 4 skinfolds were higher than those with BMI at all ages. Log sigma 4 skinfolds explained between 61% (14.0-16.9 y) and 68% (11.0-13.9 y) of the body density variance. Regression equations for body density from BMI and triceps skinfold thickness explained between 51% (14.0-16.9y) and 68% (7.0-10.9 y) of the body density variance. CONCLUSIONS: The best estimators of body density in the children and adolescents studied were log sigma 4 skinfolds and a combination of BMI and triceps skinfold.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1993

Height, body weight, skinfold thickness and endurance fitness of children attending national schools in Ireland.

Height, body weight, the thickness of triceps, biceps, subscapular and supra-iliac skinfolds and the six-minute run-walk test of aerobic endurance were measured on 1163 National school children between the ages of 7 and 13, who were attending rural or urban schools in counties Cork, Galway, Limerick, Mayo, Waterford and Wexford. Height, weight and the sum of triceps and subscapular skinfolds were compared with 11 to 13 year-olds from Northern Ireland, for whom the same data is available. Endurance scores were compared with international norms. Although of the same height as other European children, the subjects were heavier and had higher skinfold thicknesses. Aerobic endurance scores averaged about 80% of international norms.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Changes in total body fat during the human reproductive cycle as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging, body water dilution, and skinfold thickness: a comparison of methods.

Total body fat and fat-free mass were assessed by magnetic resonance imaging (TBFMRI and FFMMRI) in 11-16 healthy Swedish women before pregnancy and 5-10 d and 2, 6, and 12 mo after delivery. On these occasions, TBF was also measured by the body water dilution (TBFBWD) and skinfold-thickness (TBFSFT) techniques. The results were used to compare changes in TBFSFT and TBFBWD during reproduction with changes in TBFMRI. TBFBWD was 1.5-4.0 kg higher than TBFMRI and at all postpartum measurements the difference between these estimates increased significantly with increased body fat content. This difference was also significantly higher 6 mo after delivery than it was 2 and 12 mo postpartum. The possibility that this was due to variations in the degree of hydration of FFM postpartum was considered. TBFSFT was 1.7-3.1 kg higher than TBFMRI and this difference increased with increasing body fat content. The agreement between changes in TBFMRI and TBFSFT was different during different times in the reproductive cycle and was also influenced by the amount of fat lost or gained. The findings thus suggest that there is a risk for bias when changes in TBF during reproduction are estimated by the skinfold-thickness technique as well as by isotope dilution.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1989

Comparison of maximum aerobic power, maximum anaerobic power, and skinfold thickness of elite and nonelite junior wrestlers.

The purpose of this investigation was to identify physiologic differences between elite high school-age wrestlers and nonelite wrestlers of comparable age, weight, and training experience. Two groups of junior wrestler, elite (n = 18) and nonelite (n = 18) were measured for maximum aerobic power (treadmill run), maximum anaerobic power of the arms and legs (Wingate test), and skinfold thickness. On the average (+/- SE) elite juniors had a VO2max of 52.6 +/- 2.0 ml/kg.min-1, 376 +/- 20 W for arm power, and 540 +/- 25 W for leg power. The nonelite group had a VO2max of 51.5 +/- 1.4 ml/kg.min-1 and 331 +/- 22 W and 467 +/- 29 W for arm and leg power, respectively. Ttests were computed to identify differences between the groups. The results revealed significant differences in four skinfold thicknesses, absolute anaerobic leg power, and relative anaerobic power of arms and legs. It was concluded that relative maximum anaerobic power is distinctly greater in elite high school wrestlers than less successful peers. In light of the results, it may be of benefit for wrestlers of lower caliber to decrease body fat, increase fat-free weight, and increase total body power through training.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Influence of skinfold thickness on heparin absorption.

The absorption of high and low molecular fractions of heparin from the subcutaneous compartment was evaluated in eight healthy males. They were given an intravenous infusion of 4000 U calcium heparin in 4 hours and on another occasion a subcutaneous injection of 12,500 U calcium heparin (washout period of 1 week). Anticoagulation was monitored by anti-Xa, antithrombin activity, and activated partial thromboplastin time. To evaluate factors that might influence absorption, body weight, body fat, and abdominal skinfold thickness were recorded. There was a pronounced inter-individual variability in absorption but the absorption of the two fractions of heparin was similar. The highly variable absorption was related to the abdominal skinfold thickness, and this could have implications for therapeutic and prophylactic heparin regimens.

Abdominal Muscles↗

PubMed1978

Plasma insulin response to arginine stimulation in children and adolescents with constitutional short stature according to sex, age, sexual development and skinfold thickness.

The plasma insulin response to a standard arginine stimulation test was studied in 247 children and adolescents (177 males and 70 females) with constitutional growth retardation as compared with the response obtained in a matched group of 42 normal subjects and a group of 57 obese subjects. When the insulin response was related to pubertal ratings in the children and adolescents with growth retardation, it was found that the mean fasting levels and mean peak response both rose with the progression of puberty. This tendency was more pronounced in the females. When the insulin response was related to the degree of adiposity as measured by the degree of subscapular skinfold thickness, it was found that the greater the adiposity, the greater was the mean response, with the females showing higher levels than the males in each group. Even when the response in the two sexes was compared in subjects of a similar age and skinfold thickness, the females had a higher mean peak insulin response than did the males.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Improved prediction of body fat by measuring skinfold thickness, circumferences, and bone breadths.

OBJECTIVE: To develop improved predictive regression equations for body fat content derived from common anthropometric measurements. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: 117 healthy German subjects, 46 men and 71 women, 26 to 67 years of age, from two different studies were assigned to a validation and a cross-validation group. Common anthropometric measurements and body composition by DXA were obtained. Equations using anthropometric measurements predicting body fat mass (BFM) with DXA as a reference method were developed using regression models. RESULTS: The final best predictive sex-specific equations combining skinfold thicknesses (SF), circumferences, and bone breadth measurements were as follows: BFM(New) (kg) for men = -40.750 + {(0.397 x waist circumference) + [6.568 x (log triceps SF + log subscapular SF + log abdominal SF)]} and BFM(New) (kg) for women = -75.231 + {(0.512 x hip circumference) + [8.889 x (log chin SF + log triceps SF + log subscapular SF)] + (1.905 x knee breadth)}. The estimates of BFM from both validation and cross-validation had an excellent correlation, showed excellent correspondence to the DXA estimates, and showed a negligible tendency to underestimate percent body fat in subjects with higher BFM compared with equations using a two-compartment (Durnin and Womersley) or a four-compartment (Peterson) model as the reference method. DISCUSSION: Combining skinfold thicknesses with circumference and/or bone breadth measures provide a more precise prediction of percent body fat in comparison with established SF equations. Our equations are recommended for use in clinical or epidemiological settings in populations with similar ethnic background.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed1999

Leptin serum concentrations in healthy neonates within the first week of life: relation to insulin and growth hormone levels, skinfold thickness, body mass index and weight.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Leptin, the ob gene product, plays a key role in the regulation of body fat mass and weight in adult life. The mechanisms by which maternal and fetal/neonatal weight are regulated during human pregnancy and in early postnatal life are poorly understood. High leptin levels are observed in women during gestation and in cord blood at term. We have hypothesized that high leptin levels at term could represent an important feed-back indicator of nutrient supply. Subsequently, leptin could signal adipose tissue status during late gestation and during early neonatal life. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: 51 healthy newborns were studied. Clinical and auxological data (birth length, weight, and iliac, subscapular, biceps and triceps skinfold thickness) were recorded using a standardized data sheet. Venous cord blood was obtained immediately after birth in all neonates. Subsequently, capillary blood was obtained from the heel from some of the newborns when blood had to be obtained because of signs or symptoms of particular problems such as hypoglycaemia or hyperbilirubinaemia, at the following time points: two to four hours after birth in 51 infants, 56-79 h after birth in 47 infants and 99-128 h after birth in 23 of the newborns. The ratio between the sexes (girls/boys) was similar at all time points. The infants that were included in the study were subsequently found to be normal and healthy after analysis of the clinical and biochemical data. A specific ultrasensitive radioimmunoassay was used to measure leptin, while growth hormone and insulin were measured using commercially available immunoassays. RESULTS: Gestational age was 38-42 weeks, maternal age was 21-42 years. Birth weights ranged from 2480 to 4400 g. All newborns and mothers were subsequently found to be healthy. Leptin levels in venous cord blood was 0.16-6.80 microg/l, median 3. 47 microg/l and in capillary blood shortly after birth 0.26-7.03 microg/l, median 3.89 microg/l. 56-79 h after birth leptin levels had fallen dramatically, range 0.02-1.69 microg/l, median 0.26 microg/l, while 99-128 h after birth, leptin concentrations in capillary blood (0.05-2.61 microg/l, median 0.59 microg/l) had significantly increased when compared to the levels at 56-79 h (P < 0.001). There was a significant correlation between leptin levels in umbilical vein and birth weight of the neonates (r = 0.57, P < 0.03). Multistep regression analysis revealed that weight and skinfold thickness accounted for approximately 35-70% of the variation of leptin levels. Insulin and growth hormone, and glucose and bilirubin however, had no major impact on leptin levels. CONCLUSION: High leptin levels are present in cord blood at birth and in capillary blood shortly after birth. Since leptin levels in cord blood correlate with birth weight it is tempting to speculate that in the fetus as in later life leptin is signalling expansion of fat stores. Most importantly, we now report that leptin levels are high in the fetus but decline rapidly and dramatically after birth in healthy neonates. This may be important for the stimulation of feeding behaviour and the acquisition of energy homeostasis in the neonate.

Body Mass Index↗

PubMed1984

The Bacon Chow study: effect of nutritional supplementation on maternal weight and skinfold thicknesses during pregnancy and lactation.

Effects of a feeding programme on maternal weight, triceps and subscapular skinfolds during pregnancy and lactation were assessed in a marginally undernourished population of rural Taiwan. Mothers participated during two pregnancy and lactation periods. At 3 weeks after the delivery of the first infant, one group of 114 mothers began consuming a nutrient-dense supplement (A), while another group of 111 received a placebo (B). There was no significant A-B difference in pregnancy weight gain (A 7.52 kg, B 7.75 kg) or in mean maternal weight, triceps or subscapular skinfolds at any time during pregnancy or lactation. Despite a general trend toward moderate weight loss during lactation, one-third of mothers in both groups gained weight. Highly significant increases in weight and skinfold thicknesses from one lactation period to the next characterized both groups. The absence of demonstrable supplement-effects on maternal anthropometry concomitant with increments in infant birth weight supports the notion that infants can benefit from maternal supplementation without changes in maternal nutritional status.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Determination of body composition from skinfold thickness: a validation study.

Measurement of body composition is proving increasingly important in clinical nutrition and research. Skinfold thickness is a simple means of estimating body composition which is widely used in children, but there is little information on its validity. There has been a proliferation of equations for estimation of body composition from skinfolds, but some doubt as to their general applicability. The aim of the present study was to validate five currently used equations for this purpose in a sample of 98 healthy prepubertal children (64 boys, 34 girls), mean (SD) age 9.1 (1.7) years by comparison of estimates from each equation with measurements of fatness derived from hydrodensitometry. Differences between methods were determined by calculation of biases and limits of agreement. Limits of agreement between predicted and measured fatness were wide, particularly in the girls, and some distinct biases were apparent. Choice of prediction equation therefore has a substantial influence on the estimate of fatness obtained when using skinfolds in children. The existing published equations are associated with large random errors or significant systematic errors. For the time being skinfolds might best be regarded as indices (rather than measures) of body fatness in individuals, or means of estimating body fatness of groups. Estimating the total body fatness of individual prepubertal children using skinfolds, on the basis of this evidence, is not advisable at present.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1991

Blood pressure in relation to skinfold thickness in the population of Andhra Pradesh.

The blood pressure of 1275 subjects of both sexes in relation to four skinfolds at biceps, triceps, subscapular and supra-iliac was studied. A positive relationship is observed between these two variables. The mean systolic and diastolic pressures increase from lower to higher skinfold thickness groups in both sexes for all the four skinfolds. The sex difference is conspicuous and significant for systolic pressure. However only a few groups show significant sex difference for diastolic pressure. In males the correlations between blood pressure and skinfolds were significant, while in females it is significant between diastolic blood pressure and biceps and triceps skin thicknesses only.

Blood Pressure↗

PubMed1977

Assessment of total body fat in infancy from skinfold thickness measurements.

A formula is given, allowing a value for total body fat to be calculated from skinfold thickness measurements at two sites (subscapular and triceps), in conjunction with nine body dimensions. For newborn infants total body fat so calculated accorded satisfactorily with published data from cadaver analyses. The formula has been tentatively applied to infants up to the age of 40 weeks, and to preterm infants. The difference between the growth of male and female infants was analysed in a series of 27 normal infants; the greater growth of musculoskeletal tissue in the male contrasted with the relatively greater growth of fat tissue in the female.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Secular trends in weight, weight-for-height and triceps skinfold thickness in primary schoolchildren in England and Scotland from 1972 to 1980.

Measurements of height, weight and triceps skinfold thickness were obtained from English and Scottish schoolchildren from 15 birth cohorts over the period 1972-1980. Positive trends in weight were found for boys and girls in both countries, but in England they were less than expected from the increases in height. The increase in weight-for-height in Scotland was paralleled by a greater increase in triceps skinfold in Scottish than in English children. Scottish children remained shorter, lighter and thinner than English children, but similar in weight-for-height. Separate monitoring of trends in obesity for English and Scottish children should continue.

Body Height↗

PubMed1988

Secular trends in body mass index and skinfold thickness with socioeconomic factors in young adult men.

Secular trends in the relationship of body mass index (BMI) and skinfold thickness to educational and income levels were examined for white and black men aged 18-34 y over the period 1960-80 with data from three successive national surveys: NHES Cycle I, NHANES I, and NHANES II. Statistical models were fitted to assess the variability in mean BMI over time within levels of education or income. There were few secular changes in mean BMI. In both white and black men a secular change from a slight positive association between mean BMI and education to a negative association was characterized chiefly by an increase in mean BMI at the lowest educational level. A slight positive association between income level and mean BMI persisted almost unchanged over this period. Mean BMI was similar for black and white men. These findings are compared and contrasted with those from a similar study for young women.

Adult↗