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PubMed2000

Specific inspiratory muscle training in well-trained endurance athletes.

PURPOSE: It has been reported that arterial O2 desaturation occurs during maximal aerobic exercise in elite endurance athletes and that it might be associated with respiratory muscle fatigue and relative hypoventilation. We hypothesized that specific inspiratory muscle training (SIMT) will result in improvement in respiratory muscle function and thereupon in aerobic capacity in well-trained endurance athletes. METHODS: Twenty well-trained endurance athletes volunteered to the study and were randomized into two groups: 10 athletes comprised the training group and received SIMT, and 10 athletes were assigned to a control group and received sham training. Inspiratory training was performed using a threshold inspiratory muscle trainer, for 0.5 h x d(-1) six times a week for 10 wk. Subjects in the control group received sham training with the same device, but with no resistance. RESULTS: Inspiratory muscle strength (PImax) increased significantly from 142.2 +/- 24.8 to 177.2 +/- 32.9 cm H2O (P < 0.005) in the training but remained unchanged in the control group. Inspiratory muscle endurance (PmPeak) also increased significantly, from 121.6 +/- 13.7 to 154.4 +/- 22.1 cm H2O (P < 0.005), in the training group, but not in the control group. The improvement in the inspiratory muscle performance in the training group was not associated with improvement in peak VEmax, VO2max breathing reserve (BR). or arterial O2 saturation (%SaO2), measured during or at the peak of the exercise test. CONCLUSIONS: It may be concluded that 10 wk of SIMT can increase the inspiratory muscle performance in well-trained athletes. However, this increase was not associated with improvement in aerobic capacity, as determined by VO2max, or in arterial O2 desaturation during maximal graded exercise challenge. The significance of such results is uncertain and further studies are needed to elucidate the role of respiratory muscle training in the improvement of aerobic-type exercise capacity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Does cumulating endurance training at the weekends impair training effectiveness?

BACKGROUND: Due to occupational restrictions many people's recreational endurance activities are confined to the weekends. We intended to clarify if cumulating the training load in such a way diminishes endurance gains. DESIGN: We conducted a longitudinal study comparing training-induced changes within three independent samples. METHODS: Thirty-eight healthy untrained participants (45+/-8 years, 80+/-18 kg; 172+/-9 cm) were stratified for endurance capacity and sex and randomly assigned to three groups: 'weekend warrior' (n=13, two sessions per week on consecutive days, 75 min each, intensity 90% of the anaerobic threshold; baseline lactate+1.5 mmol/l), regular training (n=12, five sessions per week, 30 min each, same intensity as weekend warrior), and control (n=13, no training). Training was conducted over 12 weeks and monitored by means of heart rate. Identical graded treadmill protocols before and after the training program served for exercise prescription and assessment of endurance effects. RESULTS: VO2max improved similarly in weekend warrior (+3.4 ml/min per kg) and register training (+1.5 ml/min per kg; P=0.20 between groups). Compared with controls (-1.0 ml/min per kg) this effect was significant for weekend warriors (P<0.01) whereas there was only a tendency for the regular training group (P=0.10). In comparison with controls (mean decrease, 3 beats/min), the average heart rate during exercise decreased significantly by 11 beats/min (weekend warriors, P<0.01) and 9 beats/min (regular training, P<0.05). There was no significant difference, however, between the weekend warrior and regular training groups (P=0.99). CONCLUSION: In a middle-aged population of healthy untrained subjects, cumulating the training load at the weekends does not lead to an impairment of endurance gains in comparison with a smoother training distribution.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Strengthening the fellowship training experience: findings from a national survey of fellowship trained geriatricians 1990-1998.

Geriatric fellowship training has significantly advanced in the past 2 decades in number, organization, and accreditation of formal fellowship programs. A recent survey examined career decision-making, fellowship training, and current professional activities of fellowship trained geriatricians. This paper focuses upon further desired fellowship training identified by these individuals. The responses reflect skills relevant to four aspects of professional performance: administration, management, clinical geriatrics, research, and education. More than half of the respondents documented the need for increased training in administration, including long-term care medical directorship and Medicare/managed care. Regarding clinical training, 66% recommended additional subspecialty training, particularly in psychiatry, neurology, rehabilitation, and hospice/palliative care. Seventeen percent identified a need for training in research methodology, grant writing, and mentorship. Some 6% indicated a need for further training in education, citing teaching skills and program/faculty development. This article provides examples of opportunities to strengthen each of the four defined areas, including formal training in medical administration by the American Medical Director's Association, model strategies for incorporating subspecialties, hospice/palliative care, programs to pursue graduate level training in research at many universities, and faculty development programs such as those offered by Harvard and Stanford. Accredited geriatric fellowship programs as well as fellows should recognize potential gaps in training, and make available opportunities to strengthen these areas critical to preparing for future careers in geriatric medicine.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMed2007

The use of classroom training and simulation in the training of medical responders for airport disaster.

There is a dire need to have complementary form of disaster training which is cost effective, relatively easy to conduct, comprehensive, effective and acceptable. This will complement field drills training. A classroom-based training and simulation module was built by combining multiple tools: Powerpoint lectures, simulations utilising the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) schematic module into 'floortop' model and video show of previous disaster drill. 76 participants made up of medical responders, categorised as Level 1 (specialists and doctors), Level 2 (paramedics), Level 3 (assistant paramedics) and Level 4 (health attendants and drivers) were trained using this module. A pre-test with validated questions on current airport disaster plans was carried out before the training. At the end of training, participants answered similar questions as post-test. Participants also answered questionnaire for assessment of training's acceptance. There was a mean rise from 47.3 (18.8%) to 84.0 (18.7%) in post-test (p<0.05). For Levels 1, 2, 3 and 4 the scores were 94.8 (6.3)%, 90.1 (11)%, 80.3 (20.1)% and 65 (23.4)% respectively. Nevertheless Level 4 group gained most increase in knowledge rise from baseline pre-test score (51.4%). Feedback from the questionnaire showed that the training module was highly acceptable. A classroom-based training can be enhanced with favourable results. The use of classroom training and simulation effectively improves the knowledge of disaster plan significantly on the back of its low cost, relatively-easy to conduct, fun and holistic nature. All Levels of participants (from specialists to drivers) can be grouped together for training. Classroom training and simulation can overcome the problem of "dead-document" phenomenon or "paper-plan syndrome".

Aviation↗

PubMed2006

Effect of resistance and aerobic training on regional body composition in previously recreationally trained middle-aged women.

Twelve middle-aged women (mean age 41.9 +/- 1.6 y) performed variable-cam resistance training and aerobic training 3 times/week for 14 weeks. One repetition maximum (1 RM) significantly increased between pre-training and training week 7 (13.1%-17.8%), between training week 7 and post-training (10.8%-14.1%), and between pre-training and post-training (25.5%-30.9%). Total-body lean soft tissue and total % body fat determined by duel-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) significantly increased (2.2%) and decreased (1.4%), respectively. Arm, trunk, and total upper-body (arm + trunk) lean soft tissue significantly increased (0.7%-4.6%). Total body fat tissue and all regional measures of fat tissue and % fat showed no significant changes. Significant correlations were shown between pre-testing and post-testing 1 RM in the bench press, lat pull down, and overhead press in all instances, except for post-training bench press and total upper-body lean soft tissue (r = 0.58-0.90). In contrast, non-significant correlations were shown between pre- and post-testing 1 RM of the leg press, with the exception of pre-training and total lean soft tissue and pre-training and leg lean soft tissue. In conclusion, resistance training resulted in consistent strength gains in middle-aged women, which were accompanied by regional changes in upper-body composition, whereas lower-body composition moved in the hypothesized direction, but did not achieve significance.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Training outcome in future professional voice users after 18 months of voice training.

The goal of this study is to define the long-term influence of vocal hygiene education and the effectiveness of voice training in 46 students. Half of the subjects, called the trained group (n = 23), received vocal hygiene education during 1 school year and voice training during 2 school years (18 months). The other half, also 23 subjects, received neither vocal hygiene education nor voice training as such (called the untrained group). The voice training is made up of technical workshops (30 h a year in groups of 5-8 subjects) and vocal coaching in the radio and drama projects (30 h whole class). In the lectures (30 h) a theoretical background on breathing, articulation, voicing and vocal hygiene was discussed. A multidimensional test battery containing the GRBAS scale, videolaryngostroboscopy, maximum phonation time, jitter, lowest intensity, highest frequency, Dysphonia Severity Index (DSI) and Voice Handicap Index (VHI) was applied before and after 18 months to evaluate the effect of voice training over time. A questionnaire on daily habits was presented before the lectures, and after 18 months to detect the long-term effect of the lectures. The objectively measured voice quality (DSI) of the trained group improved significantly over time (p < 0.001) due to training (p = 0.008), which was not the case in the untrained group. The self-assessed VHI, on the other hand, changed over time (p < 0.001) in both groups. For the trained group the VHI changed from 18.4 to 14.4 and in the untrained group from 20.1 to 15.3. It is important to note that the VHI scores of both groups remained high. The interpretation of the results of the daily habit questionnaire is disturbing: the initial high degree of smoking, vocal abuse, stress and late meals was not influenced by the lectures or training and remained high. This study proves the positive outcome and emphasizes the need for a well-organized voice training program in future professional voice users. However, the lectures and training on vocal hygiene failed to improve voice-conserving habits.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Home-based resistance training is not sufficient to maintain improved glycemic control following supervised training in older individuals with type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether improvements in glycemic control and body composition resulting from 6 months of supervised high-intensity progressive resistance training could be maintained after an additional 6 months of home-based resistance training. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We performed a 12-month randomized controlled trial in 36 sedentary, overweight men and women with type 2 diabetes (aged 60-80 years) who were randomly assigned to moderate weight loss plus high-intensity progressive resistance training (RT&WL group) or moderate weight loss plus a control program (WL group). Supervised gymnasium-based training for 6 months was followed by an additional 6 months of home-based training. Glycemic control (HbA1c), body composition, muscle strength, and metabolic syndrome abnormalities were assessed at 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. RESULTS: Compared with the WL group, HbA1c decreased significantly more in the RT&WL group (-0.8%) during 6 months of supervised gymnasium-based training; however, this effect was not maintained after an additional 6 months of home-based training. In contrast, the greater increase in lean body mass (LBM) observed in the RT&WL group compared with the WL group (0.9 kg, P < 0.05) after the gymnasium-based training tended to be maintained after the home-based training (0.8 kg, P = 0.08). Similarly, the gymnasium-based increases in upper body and lower body muscle strength in the RT&WL group were maintained over the 12 months (P < 0.001). There were no between-group differences for changes in body weight, fat mass, fasting glucose, or insulin at 6 or 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: In older adults with type 2 diabetes, home-based progressive resistance training was effective for maintaining the gymnasium-based improvements in muscle strength and LBM but not glycemic control. Reductions in adherence and exercise training volume and intensity seem to impede the effectiveness of home-based training for maintaining improved glycemic control.

Aged↗

PubMed1999

Immune responses to training: how critical is training volume?

BACKGROUND: If the volume of training undertaken is sufficient to induce a negative energy balance, the anticipated benefit of an enhanced immune response may be reduced or lost. METHODS: 33 sedentary but healthy male volunteers aged 19-29 years, recruited from the university community. A peak oxygen intake measurement (cycle ergometer) and a 60-min exercise challenge at 60% of aerobic power were performed before and after 12 wk of treatment. Total leukocytes, subsets, CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, CD16+, CD19+, and CD25+ counts (FACScan), cytolytic activity (51Cr release) and cell proliferation (PHA and PWM) were measured, with subjects assigned arbitrarily to one of three groups: light training (18 subjects, aerobic exercise at 70-85% HRmax 3 times/wk), moderate training (9 subjects, similar programme 4-5 times/wk) and control (6 subjects). RESULTS: Groups were initially well-matched in physical and physiological terms. Training increased aerobic power (8%, light, 21% moderate training), with a loss of body mass and fat in the moderate training group. Controls showed no changes. Resting CD16+ counts increased by 27% (light training) and CD16+ CD56+ counts by 21% (moderate training), with less post-exercise suppression of counts than at recruitment. Light training also decreased CD3+ and CD4+ counts without changing the CD4+/CD8+ ratio. Moderate training decreased resting CD19+ count. CONCLUSIONS: From the viewpoint of immune function, the optimal training regimen is of low volume. Moderate training sufficient to induce a negative energy balance yields a smaller increase in numbers of non-MHC-restricted cytotoxic cells, and carries the negative consequence of diminished B cell counts.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Arrhythmias observed during high-G training: proposed training safety criterion.

INTRODUCTION: Most arrhythmias during centrifuge training are physiological responses to high +Gz stress. However, potentially dangerous arrhythmias occasionally occur during centrifuge training. We reviewed all arrhythmias recorded during the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) centrifuge training from April 2001 to March 2003, and developed a criterion for suspending G-training based on observed arrhythmias. METHOD: There were 195 male fighter pilots who received high-G centrifuge training monitored with electrocardiographs (ECGs). We evaluated types and occurrences of all arrhythmias during high-G training over a 24-mo period. RESULTS: Sinus arrhythmia (48.7%), single premature atrial contraction (32.3%), and single (58.5%) or paired (9.7%) premature ventricular contraction were commonly occurring arrhythmias during high-G training. We considered these arrhythmias as variant physiological responses to high-G training (category 1). In addition, we observed ventricular tachycardia (2.6%), paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (1.5%), and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (0.5%). Further investigation of these trainees revealed a significant proportion with cardiac anomalies. As a result, the JASDF currently categorizes these arrhythmias as indicators to suspend G-training and initiate cardiac workup (category 3). Other arrhythmias, such as non-sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT) or Morbitz type I atrioventricular (AV) block, were considered borderline anomalies; whether training was allowed to continue depended on the decision of the physicians monitoring the training (category 2). CONCLUSION: Routine ECG monitoring during centrifuge training is recommended to catch the pathology underlying dangerous arrhythmias for flight safety. Our proposed criterion for stopping the centrifuge is intended to differentiate between serious arrhythmias and arrhythmias of physiologic response.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

A supervised training program in flexible sigmoidoscopy: evaluating skills from residency training to clinical practice.

To assess the effectiveness of a training program in flexible sigmoidoscopy for family practice residents, we prospectively studied the performance of four residents during their training and after graduation. One hundred and four training exams performed with the assistance of an experienced gastroenterologist were compared with 118 unassisted post-training, post-residency exams. The mean depth of insertion for the post-training period was 51.1 +/- 1.2 cm, which was significantly greater (P less than .05, Student's t test) than the mean training period depth of 47.6 +/- 1.2 cm. There was no significant difference in the identification of polyps or cancer between the training and post-training periods. The mean duration of an exam was 17.3 +/- 0.6 minutes in the post-training period. No significant complications were encountered in either period. The residency trained family physicians obtained results similar to those reported by trained endoscopists in depth of examination and pathology detected, although their examinations required more time. We conclude that this model of training was effective in the development of flexible sigmoidoscopy procedural skill for family practice residents.

Clinical Competence↗

PubMed1993

General practice workload during normal working hours in training and non-training practices.

The aim of this study was to design and test a form to review workload in training and non-training practices. The study was conducted in the Oxford, Reading and Milton Keynes districts over a period of one week and involved 31 training and 21 non-training practices consisting of 156 and 66 doctors, respectively. Doctors in training practices (excluding trainees) spent a mean of one hour less per week in contact with their patients than doctors in non-training practices. Doctors in training practices spent approximately the same time per week on administration as those in non-training practices, one hour more in both meetings and non-practice work and almost two hours more in training and studying. The mean total practice workload per doctor in training practices was two hours more than in non-training practices and, when non-practice work was included, the difference increased to three hours. Compared with other doctors, trainees saw fewer patients in the surgery, in clinics and on visits, but spent more time on studying and training. This study produced broadly similar results to previous surveys, although doctors in the present study saw fewer patients each week and spent more time with each patient than in other studies.

Data Collection↗

PubMed2006

The effects of soccer training and timing of balance training on balance ability.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of a soccer training session on the balance ability of the players and assess whether the effectiveness of a balance program is affected by its performance before or after the regular soccer training. Thirty-nine soccer players were randomly divided into three subject groups (n=13 each), one control group (C group), one training group that followed a balance program (12 weeks, 3 times per week, 20 min per session) before the regular soccer training (TxB group), and one training group that performed the same balance program after the soccer training (TxA group). Standard testing balance boards and the Biodex Stability System were used to assess balance ability in the C, TxB, and TxA groups at baseline (T0) and after completing the balance program (T12). The same tests and additional isokinetic knee joint moment measurements were carried out in the TxB and TxA groups pre- and post-soccer training. Two main results were obtained: (1) No differences (p>0.05) were found in balance ability and knee joint moment production between pre- and post-soccer training. (2) The balance program increased (p<0.01) the balance ability in the TxB and TxA groups, and the improvement in the TxA group was greater (p<0.05) than that in the TxB group post-soccer training. Result (1) is in contrast to the notion of a link between fatigue induced by a soccer training session or game and injury caused by impaired balance, and result (2) has implications for athletic training and rehabilitation.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Why is toilet training occurring at older ages? A study of factors associated with later training.

Recent studies suggest that children are completing toilet training much later than the preceding generation. Our objective was to identify factors associated with later toilet training. Children between 17 and 19 months of age (n=406) were enrolled in the study. At enrollment, parents completed the Parenting Stress Index and the Receptive-Expressive Emergent Language Scale. Follow-up parent interviews were conducted every 2 to 3 months until children completed daytime toilet training. Information obtained at follow-up interviews included steps parents were taking to toilet train their child, child toilet training behaviors, presence and frequency of constipation, birth of a sibling, and child care arrangements. In a stepwise linear regression model predicting age at completion of toilet training, 3 factors were consistently associated with later training: initiation of toilet training at an older age, presence of stool toileting refusal, and presence of frequent constipation. Models including these variables explained 25% to 39% of the variance in age at completion of toilet training. In conclusion, a later age at initiation of toilet training, stool toileting refusal, and constipation may explain some of the trend toward completion of toilet training at later ages.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2006

Is it more effective for highly trained swimmers to live and train at 1200 m than at 1850 m in terms of performance and haematological benefits?

OBJECTIVES: The effects of living and training have not been compared at different altitudes in well trained subjects. METHODS: Nine international swimmers lived and trained for 13 days similarly at 1200 m (T1200) and 1850 m (T1850). The two altitude training periods were separated by six weeks of sea level training. Before and after each training trip, subjects performed, at an altitude of 1200 m, an incremental exercise test to exhaustion of 5 x 200 m swims and a maximal test over 2000 m. RESULTS: There was no difference in Vo(2)max after each training trip: the before values were 58.5 (5.6) and 60.4 (6.7) ml/kg/min and the after values were 56.2 (5.2) and 57.1 (4.7) ml/kg/min for T1200 and T1850 respectively. The 2000 m performance had improved during T1200 (1476 (34) to 1448 (45) seconds) but not during T1850 (1458 (35) v 1450 (33) seconds). Mean cell volume increased during T1850 (86.6 (2.8) to 88.7 (2.9) microm(3)) but did not change during T1200 (85.6 (2.9) v 85.7 (2.9) microm(3)). The proportion of reticulocytes decreased during T1200 (15.2 (3.8)% to 10.3 (3.4)%) and increased during T1850 (9.3 (1.6)% to 11.9 (3.5)%). CONCLUSIONS: The short term effects of 13 days of training at 1200 m on swimming performance appear to be greater than the same type of training for the same length of time at 1850 m. As mean cell volume and proportion of reticulocytes only increased during training at 1850 m, the benefits of training at this altitude may be delayed and appear later on.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1992

Potential markers of heavy training in highly trained distance runners.

Markers of a heavy increase in training were examined in ten highly trained distance runners (mean(s.d.) age 29.8(1.7) years, maximal oxygen intake 65.3 ml kg-1 min-1, personal best 10-km time 31 min 4 s) who undertook a deliberate 38% increment of training over a 3-week period. Their running performance did not improve, and six of the ten subjects developed sustained fatigue, suggesting that training was excessive, although the full clinical picture of overtraining did not develop. The Profile of Mood States was the best single marker of disturbed function, indicating increased fatigue and decreased vigour. There were no useful changes of resting heart rate or perceived exertion during submaximal running, sleep was undisturbed, and there were no orthopaedic injuries. Two subjects developed rhinoviral infections following the heavy training, and a third complained of symptoms that were diagnosed 2 weeks later as exercise-induced asthma. The increase of serum cortisol normally induced by 30 min of submaximal exercise was no longer seen when the same acute exercise was performed after heavy training. Resting lymphocyte proliferation tended to increase in response to phytohaematoglutinin (PHA) and concanavalin A (Con A), the ratio of helper to suppressor cells (H/S) decreased, and pokeweed mitogen induced smaller increases in IgG and IgM synthesis. Whereas before heavy training, PHA-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation was unchanged by 30 min of acute submaximal exercise, after 3 weeks of heavy training the same bout of exercise caused an 18% suppression of proliferation. Likewise, heavy training brought about a decrease of T-lymphocytes in response to acute submaximal exercise, but an abolition of the acute exercise-induced decrease in the H/S ratio. The previously observed exercise-induced decrease of IgG synthesis did not occur when the same acute bout of exercise was performed after heavy training. We conclude that such minor and transient changes of immune function may possibly be a warning that training is becoming excessive, but they have only a limited significance for overall immune function.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Interval versus continuous exercise training after coronary bypass surgery: a comparison of training-induced acute reactions with respect to the effectiveness of the exercise methods.

In order to improve endurance by exercise on a bicycle ergometer, both the interval method (I) (exertion and recovery phases alternate each minute) and the continuous method (constant exertion) can be employed. We examined the effects of both methods on the following parameters: heart rate, blood pressure, rate-pressure product, glucose, lactate, and catecholamine levels, and physical performance. Two groups of nine male patients were trained daily on a bicycle ergometer for 3.5 weeks. These patients had undergone coronary bypass surgery 24 and/or 26 days before the training started. The training heart rate was set at 86% of the individual maximum heart rate. In the last week of training, the exercise intensity in both patient groups, following either I or C regimen, was 20:121 W and 83 W respectively. The exercise training lasted 20 minutes with the following findings: (1) there were no significant differences in blood pressure, rate-pressure product, rates of glucose and catecholamines, and (2) there was a significantly higher rate of lactate in the second ten minutes of the I training. Before and after the training period, the patients were subjected to a multistage bicycle ergometer exercise test (sitting). The following results obtained after the training favor the I method: (1) patients' physical performance increased (+0.63 vs. +0.26 W/kg; p less than 0.001); (2) heart rate was lower at rest (-9 vs. -4 beats/min; p less than 0.04) and at 75 W (-12 vs. -2 beats/min; p less than 0.02); (3) rate-pressure product was lower at rest (-1675 vs. -291; p less than 0.04) and at 75 W (-2810 vs. -735; p less than 0.05); (4) rate of lactate was lower at 75 W (-0.83 vs. -0.33 mmol/l; p less than 0.04); (5) catecholamines were not lowered by I or C training, and no differences between the two groups could be observed. Exercise training according to the I method involves both the aerobic and anaerobic capacity of the organism, whereas exercise training according to the C method involves only oxidative capacity. After coronary bypass surgery, the I method is better suited to increase physical performance and is more effective in economizing the cardiac function.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Interactions between exposure to hypoxia and the training-induced autonomic adaptations in a "live high-train low" session.

The autonomic and cardiovascular adaptations to hypoxia are opposite to those resulting from aerobic training. We investigated (1) whether exposure to hypoxia in a live high-train low (LHTL) session limits the autonomic and cardiovascular adaptations to training, and (2) whether such interactions remain 15 days after the end of the LHTL. Eighteen national swimmers trained for 13 days at 1,200 m, living (16 h day(-1)) either at 1,200 m (live low-train low, LLTL) or at a simulated height of 2,500-3,000 m (LHTL). Subjects were investigated at 1,200 m before and at the end of the training session, and after the following 15 days of sea-level training. Cardiovascular parameters and the autonomic control assessed by spectral analysis of R-R and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) variability were obtained in the resting supine position and in response to an orthostatic test. At the end of the 13-day training, resting heart rate (HR) and sympathetic modulation on heart decreased in LLTL (-10.1% and -25.4%, P<0.01, respectively) but not in LHTL (-5.8, -15.5%, respectively). Total peripheral resistance (TPR) and DBP became higher in LHTL than in LLTL (P<0.05). Stroke index decreased in both groups during the tilt test, counteracted by an increase in HR and sympathetic modulation to the heart and vasculature, and a decrease in vagal modulation to the heart. After the following 15-day sea-level training, differences in TPR and DBP between groups disappeared. During an LHTL session, adaptations to hypoxia interacted with the autonomic and cardiovascular adaptations to training. However, these interactions did not limit the adaptations to the following sea-level training.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2006

The effects of short-term sprint training on MCT expression in moderately endurance-trained runners.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of short-term sprint training on transient changes in monocarboxylate lactate transporter 1 (MCT1) and MCT4 protein and mRNA content. Seven moderately endurance-trained runners (mean +/- SE; age 27.7+/-2.9 years, body mass 81.1+/-5.9 kg, .VO(2max) 58.1+/-2.0 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) completed a .VO(2max) and a supramaximal running test to exhaustion (RTE) before and after a 6-week period of sprint training. The sprint training was progressive and consisted of 18 sessions of near maximal short duration (5-15 s) sprints to compliment the athlete's endurance training. Prior to the training period there was a significant (P<0.05) increase in MCT1, but not MCT4 protein, 2 h after the RTE. This occurred without any change in corresponding mRNA levels. After the training period, there was a significant increase in MCT1 protein but no significant change in the MCT4 isoform. Both MCT1 and MCT4 mRNA was significantly lower at rest and 2 h post-RTE after the completion of the training period. After the training period, there was a significant increase in the time to exhaustion and distance covered during the RTE. This study demonstrates that sprint training of this length and type results in an upregulation of MCT1 protein, but not MCT4 content. Additionally, this study shows conflicting adaptations in MCT1 and MCT4 protein and mRNA levels following training, which may indicate post-transcriptional regulation of MCT expression in human muscle.

Adult↗