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PubMed1996

Vital exhaustion, anger expression, and pituitary and adrenocortical hormones. Implications for the insulin resistance syndrome.

This study was undertaken to examine whether there are psychological factors that can incline an individual toward coronary heart disease and that can in turn identify a pattern of pituitary and adrenocortical responses that is associated with the Insulin Resistance Syndrome (IRS). The study was performed with 69 normotensive and 21 unmedicated borderline hypertensive men (age range, 30 to 55 years). Type A behavior, hostility (defined as cynicism, pessimism, and paranoia), vital exhaustion, and anger expressions were the behavioral variables studied. Among these, only the vital exhaustion-anger-out factor identified the neuroendocrine pattern that predicted the IRS. This neuroendocrine pattern consisted primarily of an adrenal responsiveness to ACTH and secondarily of a high mean basal cortisol-to-mean basal ACTH ratio. The contribution of this last variable was, however, slightly questionable. Instead of the traditional coronary-prone factors, ie, type A behavior and hostility, the findings emphasize the significance of vital exhaustion and emotional distress. The findings have been discussed in terms of defeat reaction, hypocortisolemia, and visceral obesity.

Adrenal Cortex Hormones↗
PubMed1992

Anger expression, hostility, anxiety, and patterns of cardiac reactivity to stress.

The majority of studies investigating the relationships between psychological characteristics and cardiovascular reactivity to stress use a research strategy in which discrete traits are evaluated in isolation. The present study examined the effects of additive and/or interactive relationships among traits on cardiac reactivity to a mental arithmetic task. In addition, impedance cardiographic techniques were employed to examine potential relationships between such psychological traits and a specific measure--pre-ejection period (PEP)--of sympathic influence on the heart. Forty-nine undergraduate men performed a mental arithmetic task while continuous measures of PEP and interbeat interval (IBI) were collected. The subjects then completed questionnaires measuring anger expression, hostility, and trait anxiety. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) showed a significant main effect for anger-out on PEP change from baseline, but not for IBI. Results also showed that anger-in interacted with anger-out and hostility to affect both PEP and IBI changes significantly. Other results indicated that subjects in the high anger-in/low anger-out and high anger-in/low hostility groups did not show significant PEP change, although they nevertheless showed significant IBI change. These results highlight the importance of the consideration of interactions among traits in predicting cardiac reactivity and of the importance of measuring specific indexes of sympathetic arousal.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Children's responding to live interadult conflict: the role of form of anger expression.

Children's responses to interadult arguments were examined as a function of three forms of disputes: covert, verbal, and physical. Four- to seven-year-olds' overt-behavioral responses to live enactments of arguments between a male and a female were videotaped and coded for behavioral distress and anger/aggression, and children were then interviewed. Although children exhibited overt-behavioral distress in response to all forms of disputes, physical arguments evoked the highest levels of distress. Some gender differences in responding were observed. In comparison to boys, girls exhibited more overt distress during the arguments, and wanted to stop physical arguments more frequently. The results extend findings based on the videotape methodology of the presentation of interadult arguments indicating that form of anger expression impacts children's emotional responding to interadult conflict.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1996

Expression of anger by Samoan adults.

A modified version of Spielberger's 1988 Anger Expression Inventory including four Samoan culture-specific anger terms was administered to 593 adult American and Western Samoans, 25 to 55 years, to assess intrasample age, sex, and location differences and to examine its cross-cultural utility by an exploratory factor analysis. American Samoans men's and women's scores showed greater difficulty controlling anger than Western Samoan men and women, American Samoan males scored higher on Anger-Out and Samoan anger expression than Western Samoan men, and Western Samoan women scored higher on Anger-Out and higher on Samoan anger expression than Western Samoan men. Factor analysis showed that Spielberger's original factor structure was replicated in all subpopulations except American Samoan women. Control of anger, a Samoan cultural core value, appears to be more difficult in modern American Samoans of both sexes compared with the more traditional Western Samoans. Among American Samoan women, we speculate that role expansion may be responsible for their heterogeneous factor structure of anger expression.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

A comparison of tension headache sufferers and nonpain controls on the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory: an exploratory study with implications for applied psychophysiologists.

Studies that have examined the relationship between personality characteristics and tension headache have arrived at conflicting and, for the most part, negative results. In recent years, a number of investigators have begun examining the relationship between anger and psychophysiological disorders, focusing mostly on anger which is suppressed or held in rather than expressed behaviorally. The present study explored the relationship between anger in 59 tension headache subjects and compared their results to 33 nonpain controls. Materials consisted of the revised research edition of the Spielberger State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory. As predicted, tension headache sufferers were found to have significantly more anger held inward than nonpain controls. Implications for applied psychophysiology treatment and future research directions are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Depression and the experience and expression of anger in marital and other relationships.

In prior research using trait self-report measures, depression has been linked to elevated anger experience and anger suppression, whereas observational studies of marital interactions reveal high rates of overt anger expression by depressed people. This study tested whether the key distinction between these contradictory lines of research is a) target of anger expression (people in general versus spouse) or b) method of measurement (self-report versus behavioral observation). Depressed patients (N = 33) scored significantly higher than did nondepressed controls (N = 41) on self-report measures of anger and anger suppression regardless of whether the target of anger was the spouse or others. Group differences were nonsignificant on anger expression. Thus, it appears that the critical feature of studies linking depression with heightened anger expression may be their use of behavioral observations rather than their specific focus on the marital relationship.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

The expression of anger and its consequences.

Cluster analysis, using TRYSYS key cluster variable analyses, on 59 anger expression items replicated Spielberger's Anger-In and Anger-Control dimensions and revealed seven additional forms of anger expression: Noisy Arguing, Verbal Assault, Physical Assault-People, Physical Assault-Objects, Reciprocal Communication, Time Out, and Direct Expression. Aggressive dimensions (Noisy Arguing, Verbal Assault, Physical Assault-People and -Objects) correlated positively with each other and with trait anger and negatively with non-aggressive forms of expression (Control, Reciprocal Communication, and Time Out). The latter were positively correlated with each other and negatively with trait anger. Forms of expression correlated logically with the frequency of eight types of anger consequences, and there was evidence of distinct relationships between anger expression and anger consequences; e.g. Physical Assault-People correlated most with frequency of physical altercations, and Noisy Arguing and Verbal Assault with the frequency of verbal fights. Males were more likely to utilize aggressive forms of expression and to suffer consequences involving physical and verbal fights and property damage. Results are discussed in terms of convergent and discriminant validity, and in terms of their implications for assessment, treatment, and future research.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2000

Anger expression, gender, and ambulatory blood pressure in mild, unmedicated adults with hypertension.

The suppression of anger has been associated with the development of hypertension. This study evaluated the association between anger management style (anger-in and anger-out) and ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) in patients with repeated clinic diastolic blood pressures (DBPs) between 90-105 mmHg, unmedicated and with no known coronary artery disease. A total of 128 men (46.0 years) and 66 women (46.6 years) participated. Fourteen percent of men and 35% of women were classified as having "white coat" hypertension (daytime DBP < 85 mmHg). Mean awake and sleep DBP and systolic blood pressure (SBP) were evaluated in a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Anger-in and anger-out scores were categorized into low, medium, and high t-scores (< 50, 50-59, > or = 60). Results indicated that in women, increasing anger-in is associated with greater SBPs while awake and sleeping, whereas no effect was found for DBP, nor any effect in men. No significant association was found between gender, anger-out, and ABP. The clinical diagnostic status of white coat hypertension was not differentially associated with anger-in or anger-out in men and women. In conclusion, in a sample of mild unmedicated adults with hypertension, suppression of anger is associated with greater ambulatory SBP in women, but not in men.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Anger expression: parental and cognitive factors.

The associations of parental moral disengagement, guilt, prosocial behavior, and anger, with their children's maladaptive anger was examined. 98 college undergraduate students and their parents participated. Both students and parents completed the Anger Response Inventory, the Mechanism of Moral Disengagement Scale, the Texas Social Behavior Inventory, the Fear of Punishment Scale, and the Need for Reparation Scale. A multiple regression analysis was performed to assess the students' variables which predicted maladaptive anger. Only moral disengagement was a predictor of the students' maladaptive anger. Subsequent multiple regression analyses were used to examine whether parental variables predict students' anger. Fathers' maladaptive anger, and prosocial skills were significantly related to students' maladaptive anger. Maternal variables produced an increase in the multiple R similar to the fathers', but none of the individual measures were significantly associated with the students' maladaptive anger.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2003

Effects of alcohol, personality, and provocation on the expression of anger in men: a facial coding analysis.

BACKGROUND: Research has demonstrated that alcohol-related aggression is modulated by anger-based personality traits. However, it is unclear how anger, as a concomitant of aggression, is affected by an interaction among these variables. The present study evaluated the effects of alcohol, anger-based traits, and physical provocation on anger. METHODS: Participants were 136 male social drinkers who completed measures designed to assess trait anger and anger expression styles and were assigned to an alcohol or no-alcohol control beverage group. Participants engaged in a competitive reaction time task in which electric shocks were received from a fictitious opponent. Participants' experience of anger was assessed unobtrusively via the Facial Action Coding System. RESULTS: Intoxicated participants displayed more facial expressions of anger than sober participants. Interactive effects between anger expression styles and beverage group also were detected in that, among intoxicated participants, a positive relationship between facial expressions of anger and the tendency to express anger outwardly was found after high, but not low, provocation. This relationship was not observed at either provocation level in the no-alcohol control group. Similarly, whereas participants' tendency to control anger resulted in fewer facial expressions of anger by intoxicated participants, no such relationship was found among sober participants. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that alcohol intoxication facilitates the experience of anger after provocation and enhances the relationship between state anger and behavioral tendencies to control anger expression.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Anger and social appraisal: a "spicy" sex difference?

The central objective of this study was to investigate the role of social appraisal in sex differences in anger expression. Anger expression was inferred from the amount of hot sauce given to the person who induced anger. Participants were randomly assigned to a social condition, in which they expected to meet this person, or to a nonsocial condition, in which they had no such expectation. Men and women differed in their anger expressions, despite the fact that they did not differ in anger experience. Women expressed anger to a lesser extent than men, but only in the social condition. Social appraisal partly mediated the relation between sex and anger expression. The role of social appraisal in emotion and appraisal theory is discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Relationship between natural killer activity and anger expression in patients with coronary heart disease.

Recently, the contribution of the immune system in the development and progression of arteriosclerosis has been suggested. Moreover, psychological stress has also been reported to affect the immune response. Thus, psychological factors are considered to influence the immune response, and an excessive immune response promotes the progression of arteriosclerosis, resulting in the development of coronary heart disease (CHD). In this study, the relationship between the immune response and psychological factors was investigated in CHD patients (n = 74) and normal controls (n = 64). Natural killer (NK) activity was significantly higher in the CHD group than the normal control (CHD vs normal: 8151.39 vs 6653.06, P < 0.05), and was significantly elevated by the suppression of anger and negative emotions (P < 0.05). These results indicate that the characteristic process of psychological response in CHD patients is related to an overresponse of NK activity. We speculate that this linkage significantly influences the development of CHD.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

A cross-sectional study on expression of anger and factors associated with criminal recidivism in prisoners with prior offences.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to determine demographical characteristics leading to crime recidivism and define anger levels and anger expression manners for those who re-commit crime. METHOD: All the literate inmates in Izmit Closed Penitentiary were included in this cross-sectional study. The prisoners were asked to respond to State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory. Their socio-demographic data were collected and a questionnaire was given to them to determine their state of imprisonment, sentence, nature of the crime in which they were involved, their criminal history, their relationship with inmates and prison staff and substance and alcohol use. RESULTS: Of the 438 prisoners, 302 (68.9%) responded to the questionnaires. Crime recidivism among the study cohort was observed to be 37.4%. Mean trait anger, anger out and anger in scores were significantly higher in prisoners with criminal recidivism in comparison with those who did not have prior criminal records. However, mean anger control scores for prisoners with or without criminal recidivism were similar. Unemployment, education level completed at secondary school or below, having committed a crime under the influence of alcohol or narcotics, having been involved in prison fights, having resisted police officers, caused damage in their vicinity when angry and violent crimes were all found to be possible causes of criminal recidivism. Educational level completed at secondary school or below, getting into fights with other prisoners, unemployment and resisting police officers were determined to be the strongest indicators to predict criminal recidivism when all variables were considered according to a logistic regression model. CONCLUSION: It can be proposed that those who have problems with officials or hostile towards others constitute a risk group for criminal recidivism. If prisoners with criminal recidivism can be helped to identify and control their anger, their risk of committing a new crime can be minimised.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Expression of anger as a function of assertiveness and sex.

Examined differences between asserters and nonasserters and between the sexes on anger expression. Thirty-seven male and 53 female college students were administered the College Self-Expression Scale, the Buss Durkee Hostility Inventory, and the Anger Self-Report. As hypothesized, asserters and males expressed more anger and aggression, and nonasserters experienced more covert anger. The clinical/treatment implications of these findings were discussed. A finding discrepant with previous research and the present researchers' expectations, that men scored higher than women on guilt and condemnation of anger, was thought to reflect this study's sample rather than an actual population difference.

Aggression↗