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PubMed1995

[Gene diagnostics of gender verification test in competitive sports].

The gender verification test (GV) was carried out by gene diagnostics at the 12th Asian Games in Hiroshima, 1994. Human genomic DNA samples were extracted from the hair root of female competitors. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to prove the absence of the sex determining region of Y-chromosome (SRY) in order to confirm the femininity, and detection of pseudo autosomal boundary region of Y-chromosome (PABY) in order to confirm that the DNA is extracted from the hair root and the femininity can again be confirmed. A total of 1,300 female competitors were screened. We conclude that this testing is useful for the GV, because hair sampling is easy, the method is simple and there is little contamination.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed1995

A childhood gender identity disorder. Analysis, preoedipal determinants, and therapy in adolescence.

This paper is about a four-year-old boy's wish to be a girl. This wish was a compromise formation, the consequence of intrapsychic conflict. Using reconstructive inferences and research findings, I suggest a line of development in the boy's femininity, beginning with constitutional and maturational factors, with being shaped in a feminine direction by his environment, and with shaping himself internally in the form of a compromise formation in that direction by the time he was two to three years of age. The disorder began to acquire a persistence and stability during the preoedipal phase and, with minor changes in its components, remained operative during the oedipal phase, latency, and adolescence.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Anna, Irma and Dora--the key to the mothers in the creation of psychoanalysis].

As a science caught up between the mythical and the rational, psychoanalysis is subject to the pulls of two opposing currents, a creative enlightened one concerned with the investigation of the unconscious, and a conservative counter-current observable in the psychoanalytic theory of femininity. In her analysis of these warning elements the author goes back to the genesis of psychoanalysis and its creator and takes a close look at the primal myth (the legend of Breuer and Anna O.), the primal dream (Irma), and finally the primal analysis (the case of Dora). King's analysis demonstrates that Freud unconsciously appropriated female psychic features and--in unconscious identification with the mother of the Urszene, bound up with adolescent regression and attendant bi-sexual grandeur fantasies--imagined himself as ideal woman and "conceiver". By appropriating female potency for himself and thus making the opposite sex superfluous, Freud's theory of femininity leaves the place of women vacant, relegating them to the role of a defective entity, a castrated man, rather than acknowledging their otherness. In King's view, this phallic monism is inextricably interwoven with adolescent bisexual identifications and fantasies of grandeur about Freud's own gender, while denying gender-difference genuine recognition and integration.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Difficulties in becoming a woman and staying a woman. On the problems of female identity in menopause].

With a very few exceptions, the sparse psychoanalytic literature on menopause has regarded it almost exclusively as a kind of ailment, a process of decay and loss. By contrast, recent feminist discourse has demonstratively set itself apart from Freud's theory of femininity and emphasized the opportunities that the menopause brings, albeit at the expense of female sexual desire. Hettlage-Varjas and Kurz suggest that critical review of Freud's theories and more recent concepts of femininity can be integrated into psychoanalytical theory on the psychology of conflict and instinctual drives. They thus avoid the equally dangerous temptations either of classifying the female climateric as pathological or else denying the anxieties and sense of loss that involves and declaring it a conflict-free zone.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

[Incidence of cholecystolithiasis in women employed by industrial workplaces in Szczecin].

Making use of the possibility that is provided by the ultrasonic technique applied for epidemiological examinations of cholelithiasis, 1339 women, aged 20-69 years, employed at two "typical feminine" working places in Szczecin were investigated. The purpose of the paper was to perform sonographic studies of the gallbladders in women employed in "typical feminine" clothing industry establishments of Szczecin, in order to estimate the incidence rate of cholecystolithiasis in the studied population--types of cholelithiasis risk factors,--relationship between the changes revealed at sonographic examination and clinical symptoms. Cholelithiasis was diagnosed in 232 women, i.e. in 17.33% of the examined. The incidence rate was rising with the age from 1.66% of cases among those aged 20-29 years to 35.29% among women 60-69 years old. Successive significant risk factors appeared to be overweight in as many as 72.8% of the studied females with calculosis, and also past three or more pregnancies and miscarriages. The use of oral anticonceptive drugs as well as positive family anamnesis was of lesser, but of significant importance. Asymptomatic calculosis was disclosed in 173, whereas the other 273 studied women were found to have symptomatic calculosis. No relation was recorded between the number as well as the size of deposits in the gallbladders, and the presence of ailments or their absence. More frequent incidence of cholelithiasis in female population was encountered than that reported by West-European authors. Also more frequent appearance of symptomatic calculosis was evidenced than it is generally published in literature.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[The female role as assessment of mental health of women within the general population of Cantabria].

This paper tries to analyse the relationship between traditional feminine role (marriage, motherhood and housing) and mental health in spanish women. The General Health Questionnaire 60-items (GHQ-60) was used to define "cases" in a random sample of the general population of Cantabria consisting of 630 women aged 17 and over. The rate of probable prevalence of psychiatric disorders was 26.4%. In contrast to previous studies, motherhood and traditional feminine role correlated with the lowest GHQ-60 mean scores. Occupational status was not related to mental health. Women living with husband, children, parents and/or parents-in-law scored lower on GHQ-60 than those living with husband and children. These results are discussed in the light of previous findings in the literature. At least, they reconfirm the importance of socio-cultural factors in community psychiatric disorder.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

[Value of microfertilization for repeated in vitro fertilization failures: the role of female parameters].

UNLABELLED: Microfertilization technics as SUZI (sub-zonal insemination) can be indicated in cases of repeated in vitro fertilization (IVF) failure. Feminine parameters seem to play however an important role in optimalization of results. We studied 27 couples (32 IVF-SUZI cycles) who had previously presented 2 to 4 in vitro fertilization failures. These 32 cycles were divided in 2 groups according to women's age: group A < or = 35 and group B > 35 years. RESULTS: basal FSH levels were higher in group B (6.6 +/- 3.1 mIU/ml) in comparison to group A (3.7 +/- 1.5 mIU/ml). The amount of hMG necessary to accomplish ovarian stimulation was also higher in group B (39 +/- 21 ampules) than in group A (26 +/- 11 ampules). Maximal plasma estradiol levels were higher in group A (2,775 +/- 872 pg/ml) than in group B (1,824 +/- 559 pg/ml) such as the mean number of oocytes collected and micro-injected: 11.6 +/- 4.5 versus 4.7 +/- 2.2 in groups A and B, respectively. Eight pregnancies (44%), of which 7 were ongoing pregnancies, were obtained in group A. No pregnancy was obtained in group B. CONCLUSIONS: SUZI seems to be an available technic for treatment of repeated IVF failures; our results seem to indicate a decrease in SUZI results with age of the women (> 35 years old); they suggest the opportunity of a complete investigation of feminine parameters prior to each SUZI-IVF cycle.

Estradiol↗

PubMed1993

[Dietary determinants in cholesterolemia in an adolescent group].

In view of the importance of cholesterol as a risk factor of cardiovascular disease, the present study analyzes the influence of the diet on blood cholesterol levels in a group of 156 teen-ager 14 to 18. The dietetic study pointed out the existence of diet cholesterol density higher than the recommended one of 100 mg/1000 Kcal, being the eggs, meat and the milk products the most important cholesterol food sources. No statistical correlations have been found between dietetic and blood data, though the feminine population, who has the highest cholesterolemia, has also the highest and unbalanced lipid intake when compared to men. The standing of this population seems not to be preoccupying, because the hipercholesterolemia data (all in the feminine population) are very few.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1976

Parental mislabeling of female genitals as a determinant of penis envy and learning inhibitions in women.

A survey of sex education literature confirms parents' self-reports regarding sex information imparted to their children. With relatively few exceptions, young children (and even teenagers) are taught that "boys have a penis and girls have a vagina," without further linguistic distinctions made regarding the sensitive external genitals of the female child. It is suggested that this incomplete, undifferentiated, and often inaccurate picture of female genitals prevents the growing girl from achieving pride in femininity, and may lead to anxiety and confusion regarding her sexuality. A case is presented in which the failure to label the girl's external genitals was a contributing factor to penis envy, as well as to conflicts about "looking" which led to symptomatic learning inhibitions. It is suggested that the ubiquity of the female "castration complex" may not stem primarily from the fact that the clitoris is a smaller (and thus inferior) organ compared to the penis. Rather, the girl's feeling of being "cheated" may reflect parental failure to explicitly acknowledge that the vulva (especially the clitoris) is an important aspect of "what girls have." Because visible and sensitive aspects of the girl's genitals are not labeled for her, the girl may feel that she does not have "permission" to develop into a sexually responsive and complete woman. As in the case presented, penis envy may be a symptom expressing the wish to have one's female sexuality "validated," but which also serves to block this forbidden wish by inhibiting sexual responsiveness and pride in femininity.

Achievement↗

PubMed1993

The female genital dress-rehearsal: a prospective process at the oedipal threshold.

Rather than focus on the girl's phallic identification as a compensatory reaction to her femininity, I offer a conceptual framework through which to examine how the girl symbolically masters and elaborates her biologically unfolding sexuality. Presumably, because her genital inner space can be defined and filled only through the playful retention and expulsion of an external object, the girl's phallic identification paradoxically affords her the first experience of her genital femininity. Borne out of her genital stimulation at the oedipal threshold, the genital dress-rehearsal turns on outside gestures becoming registered as sensations inside her body. As a result of her dual experience, the girl is both phallic and vaginal, giver and receiver, father and mother. Through the magic of play, the girl renegotiates her oath of fidelity to her internal, pre-oedipal mother, while laying claim to the kind of sexual vibrancy that her external, oedipal mother shares with her oedipal father.

Body Image↗

PubMed1997

Sexual differentiation of the zebra finch song system: positive evidence, negative evidence, null hypotheses, and a paradigm shift.

Permanent sex differences in the brain are found in many vertebrates, and are thought to be induced by sex differences in secretion of gonadal steroid hormones during critical periods of early development. This theory has received support primarily from many experiments conducted on mammals, but also from studies on other vertebrate classes, including birds. The only avian neural dimorphism that has allowed extensive tests of this hypothesis is the neural circuit for song in passerine birds, which is much larger in males than in females. Experiments in zebra finches have yielded contradictory results. Although it is relatively easy to induce masculine patterns of development in genetic females with estrogen, it has not been possible to induce feminine patterns of development in males with any treatments, including antiestrogens and inhibitors of estrogen synthesis. Moreover, genetic females that develop with large amounts of functional testicular tissue but with virtually no ovarian tissue nevertheless have a feminine song circuit. The latter studies fail to support the idea of steroid induction of sexual differentiation. An alternative to the steroidal control hypothesis is that nonhormonal gene products expressed in the brain early in development trigger sexually dimorphic patterns of development. Although current evidence in several neural and nonneural systems indicates that sexual differentiation of some somatic phenotypes cannot be explained by the actions of gonadal steroids, the idea of direct genetic (nonhormonal) induction of sexual differentiation has yet to be proved.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Meanings of gender and suicidal behavior during adolescence.

In the United States, gender differences in suicidal behavior rates emerge during adolescence, when females are more likely to engage in suicidal behavior, but are less likely to die as a result of a suicidal act than males. These gender patterns of suicidal behavior are common but not universal, suggesting cultural influences. This article reviews the highlights of the research on cultural meanings of gender and suicidal behavior. Studies suggest that U.S. adolescents perceive nonfatal suicidal behavior as more "feminine" and less potent than killing oneself. Persons who are suicidal in response to a relationship problem are considered more "feminine" than persons who become suicidal in response to an achievement failure. Males are more critical and avoidant of suicidal persons than females, especially when the suicidal person is a male. These beliefs may play a role in decisions about suicidal behavior (what kinds of suicidal behavior are chosen, and under what conditions). Cultural narratives of gender and suicidal behavior may be particularly influential for adolescents because adolescents are in the process of defining their identity, and often take cultural messages about "appropriate" gender behavior more seriously and more literally than adults. The implications of the findings from the research on cultural meanings of gender and suicidal behavior for prevention programs are outlined.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1976

[Quantitative description of growth processes in man as a basis for the objective comparison of sex-specific data for various body measurements].

To compare growth processes of feminine human beings with such one of masculine we have taken as realizations of the growth characteristic the morphological height of face (distance between nasion and gnathion), length of nose (distance between nasion and subnasale) and body length of two spatially and temporally different populations. Measured values of these characteristics for different ages of individuals provide the basis for mathematical evaluation. The parameters of the following three types of mathematical functions were adjusted to the measured time course of the growth characteristics: Gompertz' function, inverse tangent and the generalized logistic growth function. The principal possibilities are explained which a mathematical expression can offer for qualitative and quantitative description of dynamical processes. The results of fitting the 3 competitive function types to the course of the measured values are given and several quantitative conclusions are demonstrated arising from comparisons of corresponding growth processes of feminine and masculine human beings.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed1993

Pemphigus foliaceus in young women. An endemic focus in the Sousse area of Tunisia.

BACKGROUND AND DESIGN: With the exception of some areas in Brazil, pemphigus is an exceptional disease. Several previous observations suggested that pemphigus foliaceus occurred more frequently than expected in Tunisia. To confirm these observations, a 15-month prospective survey was undertaken at the University Hospital of Sousse in Tunisia. RESULTS: During the survey, 23 patients with pemphigus were observed. Twenty of 23 cases were of pemphigus foliaceus that affected only young women. Seven patients had the clinical features of pemphigus herpetiformis. The estimated incidence of pemphigus foliaceus in the Sousse area was four new cases per million inhabitants per year, far above European or North American incidence but lower than the incidence in the most severely affected areas in Brazil. The high prevalence of the herpetiform clinical variant, the young age, the feminine exclusivity, and the absence of familial cases differentiated this Tunisian pemphigus both from pemphigus foliaceus observed in Europe and North America and from the Brazilian fogo selvagem. No etiologic factor was identified. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests the existence in Tunisia (and possibly in all North Africa) of an endemic form of pemphigus foliaceus restricted to young women.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

The female role in the transmission of HIV infection.

Women are increasingly recognized as a significant population at risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. In major cities in Africa, the Americas, and Europe, HIV infection is the leading cause of death in women aged 25 through 29 years. New patterns have emerged in the epidemic, the most dramatic of which is the increased rate of transmission for heterosexuals, directly associated with an increase in seropositivity among women and children. Between 1989 and 1990, the number of women diagnosed with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome rose 34% compared with a 22% rise in men. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have increased support for studies related to prevention of HIV infection in response to these trends. Health professionals should demonstrate an understanding of the complex nature of sexuality, femininity, and the female role in society when educating female patients about virus avoidance, so that preventive behavior will be perceived as consistent with a woman's personal standards for sexual relationships.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1979

Gender identity change in transsexuals. Follow-up and replications.

An apparently successful change in gender identity of an adolescent transsexual was reported several years ago. Gender-specific motor behavior, appropriate sex role social behavior, cognitive sexual activity, and finally sexual arousal patterns were defined, measured, and sequentially modified. In this report, a 6 1/2-year follow-up is presented and the application of a similar therapeutic package to two additional cases is described. In the first case, sweeping changes in gender identity, sex-role behavior, and sexual arousal patterns were observed. In the second of these cases, rigid feminine gender was given up, but the patient chose to retain homosexual arousal. Social adaptation was satisfactory. These findings and other recent developments point to the possibility of psychosocial intervention as an alternative to surgery in the treatment of transsexualism.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Long-term satisfaction and psychological and social function following bilateral prophylactic mastectomy.

CONTEXT: Prophylactic mastectomy is a preventive option for women who wish to reduce their risk of breast cancer. There has been concern about possible negative psychological sequelae following this procedure. However, few data are available regarding long-term satisfaction and psychological and social function following this procedure. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate patients' long-term satisfaction and psychological and social function following prophylactic mastectomy. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Descriptive study of all women known to be alive (n = 609) who had a family history of breast cancer and elected to undergo bilateral prophylactic mastectomy at a large, tertiary US health care clinic between 1960 and 1993, 94% (n = 572) of whom completed a study questionnaire. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Satisfaction with procedure and effects on psychological and social function, based on responses to the study-specific questionnaire. RESULTS: Mean time from prophylactic mastectomy to last follow-up was 14.5 years. Most women (70%) were satisfied with the procedure; 11% were neutral; and 19% were dissatisfied. Among the psychological and social variables, the most striking finding was that 74% reported a diminished level of emotional concern about developing breast cancer. The majority of women reported no change/favorable effects in levels of emotional stability (68%/23%), level of stress (58%/28%), self-esteem (69%/13%), sexual relationships (73%/4%), and feelings of femininity (67%/8%). Forty-eight percent reported no change in their level of satisfaction with body appearance; 16% reported favorable effects. However, 9%, 14%, 18%, 23%, 25%, and 36% reported negative effects in these 6 variables, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that positive outcomes following prophylactic mastectomy include decreased emotional concern about developing breast cancer and generally favorable psychological and social outcomes. These must be weighed against the irreversibility of the decision, potential problems with implants and reconstructive surgery, and occurrence of adverse psychological and social outcomes in some women. JAMA. 2000;284:319-324

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1998

The slender ideal and eating disorders: an interdisciplinary "telescope" model.

OBJECTIVE: This paper interprets eating disorders (including anorexia and bulimia) as one (nonfunctional) manifestation, in modern environments, of evolved psychological mechanisms which modulate the standard of feminine bodily attractiveness as a response to economic conditions. METHOD: Published evidence from anthropology, sociology, and psychology was used to evaluate predictions that (1) where economic independence is possible, women favor a slender standard and (2) where women lack economic power, marriage tends to be favored and the standard becomes more curvaceous. These patterns were tested by correlating U.S. economic data with changing standards of bodily curvaceousness in Vogue and Playboy. Psychological and biological mechanisms by which the slender standard produces anorexia and bulimia were examined. RESULTS: Published evidence and the empirical data suggest that the standard of bodily curvaceousness is determined by the economics of reproduction. DISCUSSION: These ideas permit integration of the research on eating disorders in several disciplines and suggest many avenues for future enquiry.

Adipose Tissue↗