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PubMed2000

Vibrio parahaemolyticus infections in the United States, 1973-1998.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus infections are associated with consumption of raw or undercooked shellfish, contaminated food, and exposure of wounds to warm seawater. Foodborne outbreaks and sporadic infections from Vibrio species in 4 Gulf Coast states are reported routinely to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Between 1988 and 1997, 345 sporadic V. parahaemolyticus infections were reported: 59% were gastroenteritis, 34% were wound infections, 5% were septicemia, and 2% were from other exposures. Forty-five percent of patients suffering from these conditions were hospitalized for their infections, and 88% of persons with acute gastroenteritis reported having eaten raw oysters during the week before their illness occurred. Between 1973 and 1998, 40 outbreaks of V. parahaemolyticus infections were reported to the CDC, and these outbreaks included >1000 illnesses. Most of these outbreaks occurred during the warmer months and were attributed to seafood, particularly shellfish. The median attack rate among persons who consumed the implicated seafood was 56%. To prevent V. parahaemolyticus infections, persons should avoid consumption of raw or undercooked shellfish and exposure of wounds to seawater.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S.↗

PubMed1989

Single active site mechanism of rabbit liver acid alpha-glucosidase.

An acid alpha-glucosidase was purified from rabbit liver by fractionation with ammonium sulfate, and chromatographies on Sephadex G-100, CM-Toyopearl, Toyopearl HW-55F, and Toyopearl HW-65F column. The resulting preparation showed a single band on polyacrylamide disc gel electrophoresis. The molecular weight was estimated to be 1.03 X 10(4) by SDS-disc electrophoresis. The optimum pH was found to be 4.7. The alpha-glucosidase showed relatively high activity not only toward maltose but also toward alpha-glucans, such as shellfish glycogen, soluble starch, beta-limit dextrin, amylopectin, and amylose. The Km values for maltose and shellfish glycogen were 2.1 and 16 mM (the concentration of non-reducing glucose units), respectively, and the ratio of maximum velocities of hydrolysis of the two substrates was 100:133. The nature of the active site catalyzing the hydrolyses of maltose and shellfish glycogen was investigated by electrophoresis in the presence of urea and by kinetic methods. The purified enzyme was not separated into two components, maltase and glycogen hydrolase, in the electrophoretic gel containing 3 M urea, contrary to the report by Belenki and Rosenfeld ((1972) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 46, 443-448). In experiments with mixed substrates of maltose and glycogen, the kinetic features agreed very closely with those theoretically predicted for a single site mechanism. The essential ionizable groups, 1 (on the acidic side) and 2 (on the alkaline side), were identified as -COO- and -COOH for the hydrolysis of both substrates. Cations, Na+, K+, Mg2+, were about equally effective for the stimulation of enzyme action on maltose and glycogen.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Ammonium Sulfate↗

PubMed1984

Kinetic studies on the substrate specificity and active site of rabbit muscle acid alpha-glucosidase.

Mammalian muscle acid alpha-glucosidase was highly purified for the first time from rabbit muscle by fractionation with ammonium sulfate, and chromatographies on Sephadex G-100, CM-TOYOPEARL and TOYOPEARL HW-55. The resulting preparation showed a single band on polyacrylamide disc gel electrophoresis. The molecular weight was estimated to be 1.02 X 10(5) by SDS-electrophoresis. The optimum pH was found to be 4.5. The alpha-glucosidase showed relatively high activity not only toward maltose but also toward alpha-glucans, such as soluble starch, beta-limit dextrin, amylopectin, shellfish glycogen, and amylose. The Km values for maltose and glycogen were 6.3 mM and 12 mM (the concentration of non-reducing glucose units), respectively, and the ratio of the maximum velocities of hydrolyses of the two substrates was 100:66.7, in that order. Rabbit muscle acid alpha-glucosidase showed a wide specificity for various substrates. The Km values for maltose, maltotriose, -tetraose, -pentaose, -hexaose, -heptaose, and -octaose, and maltodextrins of average polymerization degrees of 13 and 17 were 6.3 mM, 2.6 mM, 5.9 mM, 3.0 mM, 5.9 mM, 5.9 mM, 5.9 mM, 7.7 mM, and 5.6 mM, respectively. The relative maximum velocities for maltooligosaccharides consisting of three or more glucose units were 43.5-89.3% of that for maltose. For disaccharides, the rate of hydrolysis decreased in the following order: maltose divided by nigerose greater than kojibiose greater than isomaltose. The purified enzyme was a typical acid alpha-glucosidase of mammalian origin, which hydrolyzed various substrates to produce alpha-glucose. The nature of the active site catalyzing the hydrolyses of maltose and glycogen was investigated by some kinetic methods. In experiments with mixed substrates, maltose and shellfish glycogen, the kinetic features agreed very closely with those theoretically predicted for a single site mechanism. The essential ionizable groups, 1 (on the acidic side) and 2 (on the alkaline side), were identified as -COO- and -COOH for the hydrolysis of both substrates. Cations, Na+, K+, and Mg2+, were about equally effective for stimulation of the enzyme actions on maltose and shellfish glycogen. Tris, turanose and erythritol inhibited not only maltase activity but also glucoamylase activity of the enzyme. From these results, it was concluded that rabbit muscle acid alpha-glucosidase attacks maltose and glycogen by a single active site mechanism.

Animals↗

PubMed1988

Factors related to late menopause and early menarche as risk factors for breast cancer.

To investigate underlying factors of late menopause and early menarche which are regarded as risk factors for breast cancer, we analyzed the relationships between ages at menarche and menopause, and other environmental and physical factors using the data of a population-based survey conducted in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. The analysis on menopause was based on 3,148 women aged 55 or more and the analysis on menarche was based on 16,392 women aged 40 or more. These subjects were grouped into three groups (early, average and late groups) according to their ages at menopause and menarche. Women with late menopause had larger height, weight and body mass index and included more professional, administrative and office workers, more daily fish & shellfish consumers and more women with colorectal cancer history of the mother and less current smokers. Women with early menarche also had larger height, weight and body mass index and more residence in a metropolitan area and consumed more bread, meats, fish & shellfish, vegetables, fruits, milk and black tea and less rice, miso soup and pickles. In a multiple regression analysis, occupation, weight, daily or occasional drinking and daily intake of fish & shellfish were positively and smoking was inversely associated with late menopause, while residence in a metropolitan area, weight and daily intakes of bread, milk and green-yellow vegetables were positively associated with early menarche. These results suggest the importance of underlying factors of early menarche and late menopause in the etiology and prevention of breast cancer.

Aged↗

PubMed1981

Procedure for recovery of enteroviruses from the Japanese cockle Tapes japonica.

The most likely shellfish to be harvested if sportfishing is reinstated in San Francisco Bay is the Japanese cockle Tapes japonica. The virus levels present in these shellfish are unknown and need to be evaluated before the shellfish beds are open. Towards this end, a procedure for recovering and concentrating enteric viruses from these clams has been evaluated. Effective elution of poliovirus from clam tissues was found to occur with pH 9.5 glycine-buffered saline rather than with the pH 7.5 fluid utilized by other investigators on oysters. Poliovirus desorption was combined with Cat-Floc clarification to remove cytotoxicity from clam tissue homogenates. For assay purpose, viruses were concentrated by mixing the glycine supernatant with a beef extract solution, lowering the pH, and suspending the resulting floc in a small volume of phosphate buffer. This simple technique successfully recovered an average of 73% of the poliovirus added to clam homogenates at levels of 93 and 660 plaque-forming units per 100 g. Coxsackievirus B2 was isolated from clams exposed to raw sewage.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Detection of hepatitis A virus in Mercenaria mercenaria by coupled reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a major cause of infectious hepatitis in humans. In this respect, bivalve mollusks pose a major health concern because they are filter feeders and can concentrate the virus up to 900-fold from contaminated water. Detection of HAV has been hampered because wild-type HAV grows poorly if at all in cell culture. Here we describe a technique for the detection of HAV in shellfish based on reverse transcription coupled with the polymerase chain reaction. RNA is isolated from hard-shell clam tissue and reverse transcribed with avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase. A portion of the cDNA pool is then amplified with primers specific for HAV. In experiments with an in vitro-synthesized HAV transcript, we were able to detect HAV sequence in the presence of a 200-million-fold excess of shellfish RNA. When intact virus was added to shellfish tissue before the isolation of RNA, the method was capable of detecting 10 viral RNA molecules in a reaction mixture.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Environmental investigations of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in oysters after outbreaks in Washington, Texas, and New York (1997 and 1998).

Total Vibrio parahaemolyticus densities and the occurrence of pathogenic strains in shellfish were determined following outbreaks in Washington, Texas, and New York. Recently developed nonradioactive DNA probes were utilized for the first time for direct enumeration of V. parahaemolyticus in environmental shellfish samples. V. parahaemolyticus was prevalent in oysters from Puget Sound, Wash.; Galveston Bay, Tex.; and Long Island Sound, N.Y., in the weeks following shellfish-associated outbreaks linked to these areas. However, only two samples (one each from Washington and Texas) were found to harbor total V. parahaemolyticus densities exceeding the level of concern of 10,000 g(-1). Pathogenic strains, defined as those hybridizing with tdh and/or trh probes, were detected in a few samples, mostly Puget Sound oysters, and at low densities (usually <10 g(-1)). Intensive sampling in Galveston Bay demonstrated relatively constant water temperature (27.8 to 31.7 degrees C) and V. parahaemolyticus levels (100 to 1,000 g(-1)) during the summer. Salinity varied from 14.9 to 29.3 ppt. A slight but significant (P < 0.05) negative correlation (-0.25) was observed between V. parahaemolyticus density and salinity. Based on our data, findings of more than 10,000 g(-1) total V. parahaemolyticus or >10 g(-1) tdh- and/or trh-positive V. parahaemolyticus in environmental oysters should be considered extraordinary.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Blood organic mercury and dietary mercury intake: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999 and 2000.

Blood organic mercury (i.e., methyl mercury) concentrations among 1,709 women who were participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in 1999 and 2000 (1999-2000 NHANES) were 0.6 microg/L at the 50th percentile and ranged from concentrations that were nondetectable (5th percentile) to 6.7 microg/L (95th percentile). Blood organic/methyl mercury reflects methyl mercury intake from fish and shellfish as determined from a methyl mercury exposure parameter based on 24-hr dietary recall, 30-day food frequency, and mean concentrations of mercury in the fish/shellfish species reported as consumed (multiple correlation coefficient > 0.5). Blood organic/methyl mercury concentrations were lowest among Mexican Americans and highest among participants who designated themselves in the Other racial/ethnic category, which includes Asians, Native Americans, and Pacific Islanders. Blood organic/methyl mercury concentrations were ~1.5 times higher among women 30-49 years of age than among women 16-29 years of age. Blood mercury (BHg) concentrations were seven times higher among women who reported eating nine or more fish and/or shellfish meals within the past 30 days than among women who reported no fish and/or shellfish consumption in the past 30 days. Blood organic/methyl mercury concentrations greater than or equal to 5.8 microg/L were lowest among Mexican Americans (2.0%) and highest among examinees in the Other racial/ethnic category (21.7%). Based on the distribution of BHg concentrations among the adult female participants in 1999-2000 NHANES and the number of U.S. births in 2000, > 300,000 newborns each year in the United States may have been exposed in utero to methyl mercury concentrations higher than those considered to be without increased risk of adverse neurodevelopmental effects associated with methyl mercury exposure.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Amiodarone use in patients with documented allergy to iodine-containing compounds.

The popularity of amiodarone has grown due to its effectiveness in converting arrhythmia and its formulation availability. Formulations of the drug also contain iodine; the iodine content is 75 mg in a 200-mg tablet of amiodarone and 18.7 mg/ml in the intravenous solution. Approximately 10% of the iodine content of oral amiodarone is released into the circulatory system and may increase the risks of hypersensitivity reactions in iodine-sensitive patients. Documented allergies to contrast media or shellfish should not imply that a patient is allergic to iodine. Reactions to contrast media are likely due to the high osmolar or ionic content of the dye. The primary allergen in shellfish that stimulates allergic reactions is tropomyosin. Although amiodarone can cause thyroid disorders due to the high iodine load delivered to the body with each dose, no known association exists between amiodarone and reactions to contrast media or shellfish. Three patients whose medical charts listed an allergy to iodine were administered amiodarone for chemical cardioversion of arrhythmia to normal sinus rhythm. No anaphylactic or anaphylactoid reactions were observed in any of the patients during oral or intravenous amiodarone administration. In patients with true iodine hypersensitivity, however, the potential for such reactions exists.

Aged↗

PubMed1991

A multistate outbreak of hepatitis A caused by the consumption of raw oysters.

BACKGROUND: In August 1988 we investigated a multistate outbreak of hepatitis A caused by Panama City, Florida, raw oysters. METHODS: Cases of hepatitis A (HA) with onset in July-August 1988 were identified among persons who ate seafoods harvested in the coastal waters of Panama City, Florida. We conducted a case-control study, using eating companions of case-patients, and calculated attack rate (AR) per 1000 dozen raw oysters served. Enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique were performed on samples of raw shellfish obtained from Panama City coastal waters. RESULTS: Sixty-one case-patients were identified in five states: Alabama (23), Georgia (18), Florida (18), Tennessee (1), and Hawaii (1). We found an increased risk of HA for raw oyster eaters (odds ratio = 24.0; 95% confidence interval = 5.4-215.0; P less than .001). The AR of HA in seafood establishments was 1.9/1000 dozen raw oysters served. The EIA and PCR revealed HA virus antigen and nucleic acid in oysters from both unapproved and approved oyster beds, in confiscated illegally harvested oysters, and in scallops from an approved area. CONCLUSIONS: The monitoring of coastal waters and the enforcement of shellfish harvesting regulations were not adequate to protect raw oyster consumers. More emphasis should be placed on increasing public awareness of health hazards associated with eating raw shellfish.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Okadaic acid, useful tool for studying cellular processes.

One of the most interesting groups of substances of marine origin, from structural and pharmacological points of view are polyether toxins, which generally present a great diversity in size and potent biological activities. The subject of this review is limited to okadaic acid (OA). It was the first example of a group of polyether toxins produced by marine microalgae, which is responsible for the natural phenomena known as Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning, DSP red tides. These toxins are accumulated in the digestive glands of the shellfish with a disastrous effect upon the shellfish industry in many parts of the world. Thus, it has been demonstrated that OA is a highly selective inhibitor of protein phosphatases type 1 (PP1) and 2A (PP2A), subsequently that it causes dramatic increases in phosphorylation of numerous proteins as well as being a potent tumour promoter. For that reason, OA is an extremely useful tool for studying the cellular processes that are regulated by reversible phosphorylation of proteins as signal transduction, cell division and memory.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2000

Incidence of Salmonella in fish and seafood.

Field laboratories of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration collected and tested 11,312 import and 768 domestic seafood samples over a 9-year period (1990 to 1998) for the presence of Salmonella. The overall incidence of Salmonella was 7.2% for import and 1.3% for domestic seafood. Nearly 10% of import and 2.8% of domestic raw seafood were positive for Salmonella. The overall incidence of Salmonella in ready-to-eat seafood and shellfish eaten raw was 0.47% for domestic--one shucked oyster and one shark cartilage powder. The incidence in the 2,734 ready-to-eat import seafood was 2.6%--cooked shrimp, shellfish or fish paste, smoked fish, salted/dried fish, and caviar. The incidence in import shellfish consumed raw was 1% in oyster, 3.4% in clams, and 0% in mussels. The incidence in raw, import fish was 12.2%. Distribution of Salmonella in seafood on a regional basis indicated the incidence to be highest in central Pacific and Africa and lowest in Europe/Russia and North America (12% versus 1.6%). Data on a country basis indicated Vietnam to have the highest (30%) and Republic of Korea the lowest (0.7%). While the most frequent serotypes in import seafood were Salmonella Weltevreden (1st), Salmonella Senftenberg (2nd), Salmonella Lexington, and Salmonella Paratyphi-B (3rd, equal numbers for each serotype), the top 20 list included Salmonella enteritidis (5th), Salmonella Newport (6th), Salmonella Thompson (7th), Salmonella typhimurium (12th), and Salmonella anatum (13th), commonly involved in foodborne illness in the United States. Because the incidence in the present study is based on only a small fraction of the seafood imported into the United States, efforts should be directed toward implementation of hazard analysis and critical control points to reduce the incidence of Salmonella in seafood without relying on testing for Salmonella.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls in foods from Catalonia, Spain: estimated dietary intake.

From June to August 2000, food samples were randomly acquired in seven cities in Catalonia, Spain. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations were determined for 108 samples of vegetables, fruits, pulses, cereals, fish and shellfish, meats and meat products, eggs, milk and dairy products, and oils and fats. Levels of 11 PCB congeners (IUPAC 28, 52, 77, 101, 105, 118, 126, 138, 153, 169, and 180) were determined by high-resolution gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. For toxic equivalent (TEQ) calculations, World Health Organization (WHO) toxicity equivalent factors (WHO-TEFs) were used. The highest levels of most congeners were found in fish and shellfish (11,864.18 ng/kg [wet weight]), and the next highest levels, which were substantially lower, were found in milk and dairy products (674.50 ng/kg [wet weight]). For the general population of Catalonia, the total dietary intake of PCBs was found to be 150.13 pg WHO-TEQ/day. The largest contribution to this intake came from fish and shellfish (82.87 pg WHO-TEQ/day) and dairy products (29.38 pg WHO-TEQ per day). A relatively large contribution was also noted for cereals (11.36 pg WHO-TEQ/day). Among the PCB congeners determined in this study, PCB 126 showed the largest contribution to total TEQ intake (50.56%). The data obtained in this study should be useful in risk assessment with regard to human PCB exposure through food in Catalonia.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Fulminant sepsis caused by Vibrio vulnificus. A case series].

BACKGROUND: Vibrio vulnificus is a marine bacteria associated with the ingestion of raw shellfish or contact with seawater. It can produce wound infection, diarrhea and sepsis. The main risk factor for infection is the presence of chronic liver disease. Prior studies have shown mortality from 40% to 63%. OBJECTIVE: Report of 8 cases of disseminated infection with V. vulnificus causing fulminant sepsis. DESIGN: Series of cases. METHODS: We reviewed the database of the laboratory of clinical microbiology from 1990 to 1999. A computer-based review of the worldwide medical literature was also accomplished. RESULTS: There were 8 cases of V. vulnificus infection. All patients had chronic liver disease, 3 also had diabetes mellitus and 1 received immunosuppressive agents. Five patients were known to have ingested raw shellfish. The mean duration of illness before death was 4 days. All patients presented with sepsis, seven had cutaneous lesions. Five patients received early antimicrobial treatment during the first 24 hours and all of them in the first 48 hours. Regardless of susceptibility to the antimicrobial agents used, the mortality was of 87.5%. Disk-diffusion test showed 100% susceptibility to imipenem, ceftazidime and tetracycline; 83% to cefepime, ticarcillin and cotrimoxazole and 50% to quinolones. CONCLUSION: The V. vulnificus infection appears in patients with chronic liver disease and it is associated with high mortality. This infection has to be suspected in high-risk patients who have eaten raw shellfish and therapy must be initiated as soon as possible.

Female↗

PubMed2001

An outbreak of hepatitis A among young men associated with having sex in public venues.

An increase in hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection was noted among young men in the former Thames regions during 1997. A retrospective case-control study, using a standardised questionnaire at interview, was conducted in the area most affected (London and East Sussex) to investigate the hypothesis that this increase was mainly among homosexual men and to establish the risk factors associated with transmission. Forty-eight cases and 161 controls completed questionnaires. Forty-one cases (85%) described their sexuality as homosexual (p < 0.0001). Cases were more likely than controls to have eaten shellfish (Odds Ratio (OR) 2.4; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.16, 5.04) during the two months before onset of illness. Cases had more sexual partners (p = 0.015), and more casual sexual partners (p = 0.007) than controls. Cases were more likely to have had sex in a gay sauna (OR 3.5; 95% CI 1.53, 8.30), or in a gay club, pub or disco (OR 2.9; 95 CI 1.29, 6.63) than controls. After adjusting for confounding factors, cases were more likely to have eaten shellfish (adjusted [adj] OR 3.0; 95% CI 1.33, 6.59) and to have had sex in a gay sauna (adj OR 3.9; 95% CI 1.42, 10.59). Public health messages need to inform homosexual men about recognised risk factors such as eating shellfish and travel abroad to endemic areas, as well as sexual risks. Homosexual men can benefit from hepatitis A vaccine. We would suggest that in an outbreak situation men who have multiple anonymous partners and have sex in public venues should be targeted as a priority for health education and immunisation.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1982

[Induced radioactivities in treatment head of 10 MV X-ray linear Accelerator (author's transl)].

The concentration of 60Co and stable cobalt in the shellfishes and seaweeds which were collected from the coast around Japan were obtained by low background beta counting for 60Co and spectrometric determination of stable cobalt. The results obtained were as follows: (1) The 60Co was found in the shellfishes which were enriched in the stable cobalt. (2) The correlation between 60Co and stable cobalt was rather good in the shellfishes. (3) The activities of 60Co was found in the seaweeds taken from seashore near the nuclear power plant. (4) There was great differences in the specific activities between samples collected from contaminated and not contaminated area.

Gold Radioisotopes↗

PubMed1995

[Mercury in the hair of pregnant and lactating Chilean mothers].

Mercury-containing industrial waste has been released into the coastal waters of the Eighth Region of Chile for around two decades. This study, carried out from 1991 to 1993, sought to measure mercury concentrations in the hair of pregnant and lactating women from villages near the coast and in the interior of the region in order to examine the relationship between the concentration of mercury and seafood consumption. The survey questionnaire used in 1991 to determine seafood consumption did not ask about the frequency of consumption of fish, shellfish, and algae but only whether the women who were pregnant or breast-feeding consumed a minimum of one fish-based meal per week. The questionnaire used in 1992 and 1993 asked about the daily and weekly consumption of seafood in general (fish, shellfish, and algae). Spectrophotometry was used to determine the total mercury concentration in samples of 100 mg of hair from 153 pregnant and lactating women in 11 fishing villages of the Eighth Region where seafood is regularly consumed. None of the women had occupational exposure to mercury. Total mercury concentration was also determined in hair samples from a control group composed of 26 pregnant and lactating women from Pinto and El Carmen, villages in the interior of the same region where seafood was rarely eaten. The arithmetic mean of the total mercury concentration in hair was 1.81 mg/kg of body weight for the study group (standard deviation [SD] 1.52) and 0.42 mg/kg for the control group (SD 0.15)--a statistically significant difference (P < 0.01). Pairwise comparisons also revealed statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) between the mean for the interior group and the means for the women in the nine villages closest to the sources of the pollution, but not between the mean for the interior group and those for women in the two villages at the extreme north and south of the study zone, who lived farthest from the contaminated waters. The total mercury concentration in hair was significantly higher in women who indicated that they ate fish seven or more times per week; in those who said they ate fish, shellfish, or algae five or more times per week; and in those who had lived 20 or more years in their village. No statistically significant differences were found when the results were analyzed by age.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

Redtide in the Philippines.

1. Redtide is a marine phenomenon that poses great risk to the health and economic livelihood of people in coastal areas. Paralytic shellfish poisoning develops when a person consumes molluscs containing toxic dinoflagellates and suffers neurological and/or gastrointestinal manifestations. 2. Four redtide incidents in the Philippines are presented. The manner in which the problems were managed are described. 3. The clinical features of redtide poisoning in the Philippines included gastro-intestinal and neurological features with deaths secondary to ventilatory failure. Mortality ranged from 0% to 12% in the different redtide episodes. 4. There are many lessons to be learned in handling this kind of natural disaster. For an effective toxicovigilance programme, there must be a central co-ordinating responsible organization, a clear definition of roles and functions and good inter-agency co-operation. Appropriate surveillance procedures, resources to intensify surveillance at times of risks, prompt warning system, and the ability to impose bans on consumption are also necessary. 5. Poisons centres can play an important role during times of redtide. This may include toxicovigilant activities, such as early warning and educational campaigns to consumers, and seminars in the recognition and management of paralytic shellfish poisoning. 6. The contribution of the epidemiologists in investigating and monitoring the extent of public health damage and patterns of poisoning in a coastal community is emphasized.

Animals↗