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PubMed2005

The evidence for nitric oxide synthase immunopositivity in the monosynaptic Ia-motoneuron pathway of the dog.

In this study, nitric oxide synthase immunohistochemistry supported by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase histochemistry was used to demonstrate the nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity in the monosynaptic Ia-motoneuron pathway exemplified by structural components of the afferent limb of the soleus H-reflex in the dog. A noticeable number of medium-sized intensely nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive somata (1000-2000 microm(2) square area) and large intraganglionic nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive fibers, presumed to be Ia axons, was found in the L7 and S1 dorsal root ganglia. The existence of nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive fibers (6-8 microm in diameter, not counting the myelin sheath) was confirmed in L7 and S1 dorsal roots and in the medial bundle of both dorsal roots before entering the dorsal root entry zone. By virtue of the funicular organization of nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive fibers in the dorsal funiculus, the largest nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive fibers represent stem Ia axons located in the deep portion of the dorsal funiculus close to the dorsomedial margin of the dorsal horn. Upon entering the gray matter of L7 and S1 segments and passing through the medial half of the dorsal horn, tapered nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive collaterals of the stem Ia fibers pass through the deep layers of the dorsal horn and intermediate zone, and terminate in the group of homonymous motoneurons in L7 and S1 segments innervating the gastrocnemius-soleus muscles. Terminal fibers issued in the ventral horn intensely nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive terminals with long axis ranging from 0.7 to >or=15.1 microm presumed to be Ia bNOS-IR boutons. This finding is unique in that it focuses directly on nitric oxide synthase immunopositivity in the signalling transmitted by proprioceptive Ia fibers. Nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive boutons were found in the neuropil of Clarke's column of L4 segment, varying greatly in size from 0.7 to >or=15.1 microm in length x 0.7 to 4.8 microm wide. Subsequent to identification of the afferent nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive limb of the monosynaptic Ia-motoneuron pathway on control sections, intramuscular injections of the retrograde tracer Fluorogold into the gastrocnemius-soleus muscles, combined with nitric oxide synthase immunohistochemistry of L7 and S1 dorsal root ganglia, confirmed the existence of a number of medium-sized nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive somata (1000-2000 microm(2) square area) in the dorsolateral part of both dorsal root ganglia, presumed to be proprioceptive Ia neurons. Concurrently, large nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive fibers were detected at the input and output side of both dorsal root ganglia. S1 and S2 dorsal rhizotomy caused a marked depletion of nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity in the medial bundle of S1 and S2 dorsal roots and in the dorsal funiculus of S1, S2 and lower lumbar segments. In addition, anterograde degeneration of large nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive Ia fibers in the dorsal funiculus of L7-S2 segments produces direct evidence that the afferent limb of the soleus H-reflex is nitric oxide synthase immunoreactive and presents new immunohistochemical characteristics of the monosynaptic Ia-motoneuron pathway, unseparably coupled with the performance of the stretch reflex.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed2002

Neuropeptides in experimental and degenerative arthritis.

Classical symptoms of both inflammatory and degenerative arthritides may contribute to neurogenic responses like wheal, flare, edema, and pain. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease with an immunogenetic background. Neurogenic inflammation has been considered to play an essential role in RA, in part because of the symmetrical involvement (cross-spinal reflexes) and the predominant involvement of the most heavily innervated small joints of the hands and the feet (highly represented in the hominiculus). In contrast, osteoarthritis (OA) is considered to arise as a result of degeneration of the hyaline articular cartilage, which secondarily results in local inflammation and pain. However, it is possible that the age-related and predominant (compared to nociceptive nerves) degeneration of the proprioceptive, kinesthetic and vasoregulatory nerves can represent the primary pathogenic events. This leads to progressive damage of tissue with extremely poor capacity for self-regeneration. Inflammation, be it primary/autoimmune or secondary/degenerative, leads to peripheral sensitization and stimulation, which may further lead to central sensitization, neurogenic amplification of the inflammatory responses and activation of the neuro-endocrine axis. Neuropeptides serve as messengers, which modulate and mediate the actions in these cascades. Accordingly, many neuropeptides have been used successfully as experimental treatments, most recently VIP, which effectively controlled collagen-induced arthritis in mice. Therefore, it can safely be concluded that better treatment/control of disease activity and pain can be achieved by blocking the cascade leading to initiation and/or amplification of inflammatory process combined with effects on central nociceptive and neuroendocrine responses.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Directional sensitivity of stretch reflexes and balance corrections for normal subjects in the roll and pitch planes.

A large body of evidence has been collected which describes the response parameters associated with automatic balance corrections in man to perturbations in the pitch plane. However, perturbations to human stance can be expected from multiple directions. The purpose of the present study was to describe the directional sensitivities of muscle responses re-establishing disturbed stance equilibrium in normal subjects. The contributions of stretch reflex and automatic balance-correcting responses to balance control, and concomitant biomechanical reactions, were examined for combinations of pitch and roll perturbations of the support surface. More specifically, muscle responses, initial head accelerations and trunk velocities were analyzed with the intention of identifying possible origins of directionally specific triggering signals and to examine how sensory information is used to modulate triggered balance corrections with respect to direction. Fourteen healthy adults were required to stand on a dual-axis rotating platform capable of delivering rotational perturbations with constant amplitude (7.5 degrees ) and velocity (50 degrees /s) through multiple directions in the pitch and roll planes. Each subject was randomly presented with 44 support surface rotations through 16 different directions separated by 22.5 degrees first under eyes-open, and then, for a second identical set of rotations, under eyes-closed conditions. Bilateral muscle activities from tibialis anterior, soleus, lateral quadriceps and paraspinals were recorded, averaged across direction, and areas calculated over intervals with significant bursts of activity. Trunk angular velocity and ankle torque data were averaged over intervals corresponding to significant biomechanical events. Stretch reflex (intervals of 40-100, 80-120 ms) and automatic balance-correcting responses (120-220, 240-340 ms) in the same muscle were sensitive to distinctly different directions. The directions of the maximum amplitude of balance-correcting activity in leg muscles were oriented along the pitch plane, approximately 180 degrees from the maximum amplitude of stretch responses. Ankle torques for almost all perturbation directions were also aligned along the pitch plane. Stretch reflexes in paraspinal muscles were tuned along the 45 degrees plane but at 90 degrees to automatic balance corrections and 180 degrees to unloading responses in the same muscle. Stretch reflex onsets in paraspinal muscles were observed at 60 ms, as early as those of soleus muscles. In contrast, unloading reflexes in released paraspinal muscles were observed at 40 ms for perturbations which caused roll of the trunk towards the recorded muscle. Onsets of trunk roll velocities were earlier and more rapid than those observed for pitch velocities. Trunk pitch occurred for pure roll directions but not vice versa. When considered together, early stretch and unloading of paraspinals, and concomitant roll and pitch velocities of the trunk requiring a roll-and-pitch-based hip torque strategy, bring into question previous hypotheses of an ankle-based trigger signal or ankle-based movement strategies for postural balance reactions. These findings are compatible with the hypothesis that stretch-, force- and joint-related proprioceptive receptors at the level of the trunk provide a directionally sensitive triggering mechanism underlying a, minimally, two-stage (pitch-based leg and pitch-and-roll-based trunk) balance-correcting strategy. Accelerometer recordings from the head identified large vertical linear accelerations only for pitch movements and angular roll accelerations only during roll perturbations with latencies as early as 15 ms. Thus, it appears that balance corrections in leg and trunk muscles may receive strong, receptor-dependent (otolith or vertical canal) and directionally sensitive amplitude-modulating input from vestibulospinal signals.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Early onset cerebellar ataxia with retained tendon reflexes (EOCA): an electromyographic study.

This prospective study was undertaken to characterize better electrophysiologically the newly described clinical entity of "Early onset cerebellar ataxia with retained tendon reflexes (EOCA)" and compare it with Olivopontocerebellar atrophy (OPCA) and Friedreich's ataxia (FA). Concentric needle electromyography and motor (median, common peroneal and posterior tibial) and sensory (median, sural and posterior tibial) nerve conduction studies were carried out in 14 patients of EOCA. The results were compared with those of 10 and 16 patients of FA and OPCA respectively. All patients of EOCA had either motor or sensory conduction abnormalities, motor being slightly more frequent than sensory (87.7% versus 78.6%). The neuropathy was distal and symmetrical, lacked correlation with duration or clinical stage of the disease, even between patients of the same family. Electrophysiological studies helped to detect subclinical motor and sensory neuropathy in most of the patients. No characteristic electrophysiologic abnormalities separated patients of EOCA from those of OPCA or FA, though the overall incidence of abnormalities was higher in the latter two groups. It is concluded that subclinical peripheral neuropathy is often present in patients of EOCA. The impaired proprioceptive sensation noted among these patients may be due to large fiber neuropathy rather than posterior column involvement alone. A subgroup of them, who have severe sensory neuropathy, may be difficult to differentiate clinically from patients of FA. The clinical entity of EOCA is indistinguishable electrophysiologically from FA and OPCA.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Visual control of isometric force in Parkinson's disease.

The current article reports an investigation of the influence of visual feedback on force production in Parkinson's disease (PD) that required subjects to maintain a constant amount of isometric force with their index finger and thumb with and without visual feedback. Eight PD and eight matched control subjects produced force at 5, 25 and 50% of their maximal voluntary contraction for 20 s. In conditions of full vision, the force trajectory and force target were viewed on the computer monitor. In the no visual feedback condition, visual feedback of the force trajectory vanished after the initial 8 s of the trial. The results showed that under the vision condition PD subjects produced levels of maximal and submaximal force that were similar to controls. Approximately 1.5-2.5 s following the removal of visual feedback, the force level in both subject groups decreased to steady-state levels. There was no difference in the time between visual feedback removal and the beginning of force decay in PD. There was a larger amount and faster rate of force decay after visual feedback removal in PD subjects compared to the controls. It is proposed that the increased force decay in PD does not result from sensory reflex deficits but from higher order sensory-motor memory processes.

Aged↗

PubMed1998

Bradykinin and muscle stretch alter contralateral cat neck muscle spindle output.

The objective of this study was to investigate the activity of primary and secondary muscle spindle afferents (MSAs) in neck muscles, when the contralateral splenius or trapezius muscles were (1) exposed to i.m. injection of bradykinin (BK) (6-86 microg/ml), (2) stretched, (3) stretched during exposure to BK or (4) stretched after exposure to BK. It was found that injection of BK, muscle stretch and the combination of the two stimuli significantly excited primary and secondary MSAs via reflex effects onto static fusimotor neurones. BK, alone, and in combination with muscle stretch, induced more frequent, potent and long lasting effects as compared to muscle stretch. The effects of muscle stretch was significantly increased after exposure of BK, indicating that stretch-sensitive nerve-endings within neck muscles are sensitised by BK. The results are discussed in relation to the disturbances in motor co-ordination and proprioception found in patients suffering from chronic muscle pain in the cervical region.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

The oculo-auricular phenomenon. Findings in normals and patients with brainstem lesions.

The oculo-auricular phenomenon consists of bilateral coactivation of external ear muscles during lateral gaze. The electromyogram of the transverse auricular muscle was recorded in 25 healthy volunteers and 1186 patients. In normal subjects bilateral coactivation was observed with lateral gaze (96%), convergence (61%), active and intended head rotation (100%) and passive head rotation (50%). Uni- and bilateral labyrinthine excitation (60 and 80%) and proprioceptive input from the neck muscles (38%) are also effective. In patients with brainstem disease abnormal transverse auricular muscle coactivation is characterized by absence of activity in one or both ear muscles during lateral gaze in either or both directions. The most frequent abnormality was absence of transverse auricular muscle activity homolateral to right or left gaze (type Ia pattern). It was related to homolateral impairment of the blink reflex R1-response (90%) and the caloric response (90%), and to contralateral masseter reflex abnormality (70%). Electrophysiological data, clinical signs and imaging findings indicate that the type Ia pattern is caused by homolateral pontine or contralateral midbrain lesions. It is suggested that the supranuclear organization of the oculo-auricular phenomenon is based on descending tracts crossing at a mid-pontine level.

Brain Diseases↗

PubMed2003

Functional alterations of cat abducens neurons after peripheral tetanus neurotoxin injection.

Tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) cleaves synaptobrevin, a protein involved in synaptic vesicle docking and fusion, thereby preventing neurotransmitter release and causing a functional deafferentation. We injected TeNT into the lateral rectus muscle of adult cats at 0.5 or 5 ng/kg (low and high dose, respectively). In the periphery, TeNT slightly slowed motor axon conduction velocity, and at high doses, partially blocked neuromuscular transmission. TeNT peripheral actions displayed time courses different to the more profound and longer-lasting central actions. Central effects were first observed 2 days postinjection and reversed after 1 mo. The low dose induce depression of inhibitory inputs, whereas the high dose produce depression of both inhibitory and excitatory inputs. Simultaneous recordings of eye movement and neuronal firing revealed that low-dose injections specifically reduced inhibition of firing during off-directed saccadic movements, while high-dose injections of TeNT affected both inhibitory and excitatory driven firing patterns. Motoneurons and abducens interneurons were both affected in a similar way. These alterations resulted in modifications in all discharge characteristic analyzed such as background firing, threshold for recruitment, and firing sensitivities to both eye position and velocity during spontaneous movements or vestibulo-ocular reflexes. Removal of inhibition after low-dose injections also altered firing patterns, and although firing activity increased, it did not result in muscle tetanic contractions. Removal of inhibition and excitation by high-dose injections resulted in a decrease in firing modulation with eye movements. Our findings suggest that the distinct behavior of oculomotor and spinal motor output following TeNT intoxication could be explained by their different interneuronal and proprioceptive control.

Abducens Nerve↗

PubMed1981

Muscle spindle function during normal movement.

1. Discharge of muscle spindles during voluntary movement Recent recordings from afferents in awake animals have re-emphasized the function of spindle endings as stretch receptors. The available evidence suggests that, in voluntary movements involving muscle velocities above 0.2 RL sec-1 the modulation of firing rate of both primary and secondary endings is closely related to the length variations. Below 0.2 RL sec-1, phasic changes in fusimotor action may sometimes dominate such modulation. The modulatory strength of the component of fusimotor action strictly linked to skeletomotor activity is generally low. On the other hand, there is good evidence that in most movements, at least in cats and monkeys, there is steady, low level fusimotor action, independent of homonymous skeletomotor activity. It is therefore probable that fusimotor neurons are controlled largely independently of skeletomotor neurons, in such a way as to set the sensitivity and bias of spindle endings to levels appropriate for whole sequences of movements. 2. Reflex excitation of motoneurons Skeletomotor reflex responses to length perturbations can have a powerful linearizing effect on muscle stiffness. Spindle afferents often play an important role in mediating such reflexes and probably also contribute significantly to skeletomotor excitation during tonic contractions. Transmission in the pathways from spindles to motoneurons, including those through supraspinal structures, can be modified by a number of identified segmental mechanisms. These mechanisms could well be involved in the volitional control of the amount of spindle afferent excitation reaching the motoneuron pool, and may act as a form of gain control at different levels of arousal. 3. Proprioceptive cues for coordination Stretch-evoked activity of spindle system to modify the rhythm of the spinal locomotor generator. In particular, the onset of flexion or extension depends in part on spindle afferent activity. 4. Kinesthesia There is now evidence that muscle spindles contribute to position and velocity sense, although deficits nevertheless occur if skin and joint afferents are paralyzed.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed1989

Somato-motor components of the pelvic and pudendal nerves of the female rat.

The efferent innervation of the pelvic and pudendal nerves was characterized in this study by identifying the muscles activated by electrical stimulation of the nerves distal to the point at which they bifurcate from the L6-S1 trunk. Pelvic nerve electrical stimulation produced EMG-monitored contraction of the ipsilateral ilio- and pubococcygeus muscles, which was abolished by cutting one ('muscular') branch of the bifurcated nerve. (This 'muscular' branch receives proprioceptive input activated by tail displacement, whereas the other, 'viscero-cutaneous' branch receives sensory innervation from the midline perineal region.) Pudendal nerve electrical stimulation produced contraction of the coccygeus, external anal sphincter, and ischiocavernosus muscles. Movements of the orifice and wall of the vagina were directly visualized during electrical stimulation of the two nerves. Intravaginal pressure measured by balloon was increased by pelvic nerve stimulation and decreased by pudendal nerve stimulation. Reflexive contraction of the ilio- en pubococcygeus muscles was produced by mechanostimulation of the perineum, clitoral sheath and distal vagina. This response was abolished by gentle cervical mechanostimulation. One implication of this finding is that passage of the fetuses through the cervix during parturition may relax the ilio- and pubococcygeus muscles, thereby facilitating delivery.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Step training-dependent plasticity in spinal cutaneous pathways.

Plasticity after spinal cord injury can be initiated by specific patterns of sensory feedback, leading to a reorganization of spinal networks. For example, proprioceptive feedback from limb loading during the stance phase is crucial for the recovery of stepping in spinal-injured animals and humans. Our recent results showed that step training modified transmission from group I afferents of extensors in spinal cats. However, cutaneous afferents are also activated during locomotion and are necessary for proper foot placement in spinal cats. We therefore hypothesized that step training would also modify transmission in cutaneous pathways to facilitate recovery of stepping. We tested transmission in cutaneous pathways by comparing intracellular responses in lumbar motoneurons (n = 136) in trained (n = 11) and untrained (n = 7) cats spinalized 3-5 weeks before the acute electrophysiological experiment. Three cutaneous nerves were stimulated, and each evoked up to three motoneuronal responses mediated by at least three different pathways. Overall, of 71 cutaneous pathways tested, 10 were modified by step training: transmission was reduced in 7 and facilitated in 3. Remarkably, 6 of 10 involved the medial plantar nerve innervating the plantar surface of the foot, including two of the facilitated pathways. Because the cutaneous reflexes are exaggerated after spinalization, we interpret the decrease in most pathways as a normalization of cutaneous transmission necessary to recover locomotor movements. Overall, the results showed a high degree of specificity in plasticity among cutaneous pathways and indicate that transmission of skin inputs signaling ground contact, in particular, is modified by step training.

Adrenergic alpha-Agonists↗

PubMed1993

[Overuse syndrome in ballet: study of the effect of a tape bandage of the upper ankle joint with motion analysis].

In six ballet dancers with overuse syndromes of the foot a study on the effect of taping on stabilisation, proprioception and muscular activity was performed. By using synchronous surface electromyography and 3-dimensional motion analysis three standard ballet positions without and with applied tape were performed. Muscular activities of pronator muscles (peroneus longus) and supinator muscles (tibialis posterior) were recorded. EMG measurements showed significant differences between patients with stable or unstable ankles and painful or pain-free feet. Applying tape led to significant changes of muscle activities in height and antagonist reflex patterns. These changes were highest in dancers with unstable ankle joints and metatarsalgia.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Stretching of an isolated part of the sciatic nerve of the frog (Rana rindibunda) causes excitation of its sensory nerve fibres.

The stretching of the isolated distal part of the sciatic nerve of the frog causes the excitation of a number of its nerve fibres. The excitation lasts as long as the force is applied, indicating a slow adapting mechanoreceptor system. The fact that in experiments in situ stretching of the sciatic nerve causes the reflex activation of the femoral muscles is a clear indication that the activated nerve fibres belong to primary afferent fibres. According to the results of this study either some of the primary afferent fibres in the sciatic nerve of the frog also have the potential of stimulus transduction (mechanical tension) or the sciatic nerve is equipped with nerve terminals which are sensitive to stimulus energy. The implication of this sensory mechanism in the proprioception of the leg is discussed further.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1979

Central locomotor programming in the rabbit.

In decorticate, unanaesthetized and curarized rabbit preparations, with both hindlimbs deafferented, locomotor-like discharges were recorded from nerves to flexors and extensors and their time patterns were compared. The bursts of rhythmic activities recorded from nerves to several flexor muscles acting at either joint were shown to be synchronous, with no differences in their time of onset. The same was true for the extensors. Nerves to bifunctional muscles (biceps posterior, semi-tendinosus and tenuissimus) acting on two consecutive joints (knee flexors, hip extensors) could display two consecutive bursts in each locomotor cycle, one being pure flexor and the other an extensor discharge. It is shown here that this functional bivalence is programmed centrally and can be modulated, i.e. the relative importance of the flexor and the extensor bursts can be changed in a predictable way through afferent (proprioceptive or cutaneous) influences, or through activation of the descending monoaminergic pathways. In extreme cases, complete functional reversal was observed in these bifunctional muscle nerves.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed2005

Large-field visual motion directly induces an involuntary rapid manual following response.

Recent neuroscience studies have been concerned with how aimed movements are generated on the basis of target localization. However, visual information from the surroundings as well as from the target can influence arm motor control, in a manner similar to known effects in postural and ocular motor control. Here, we show an ultra-fast manual motor response directly induced by a large-field visual motion. This rapid response aided reaction when the subject moved his hand in the direction of visual motion, suggesting assistive visually evoked manual control during postural movement. The latency of muscle activity generating this response was as short as that of the ocular following responses to the visual motion. Abrupt visual motion entrained arm movement without affecting perceptual target localization, and the degrees of motion coherence and speed of the visual stimulus modulated this arm response. This visuomotor behavior was still observed when the visual motion was confined to the "follow-through" phase of a hitting movement, in which no target existed. An analysis of the arm movements suggests that the hitting follow through made by the subject is not a part of a reaching movement. Moreover, the arm response was systematically modulated by hand bias forces, suggesting that it results from a reflexive control mechanism. We therefore propose that its mechanism is radically distinct from motor control for aimed movements to a target. Rather, in an analogy with reflexive eye movement stabilizing a retinal image, we consider that this mechanism regulates arm movements in parallel with voluntary motor control.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Pediatric fibromyalgia and dizziness: evaluation of vestibular function.

Twelve children with fibromyalgia and complaints of chronic dizziness were evaluated with both clinical office maneuvers of vestibular function and laboratory tests composed of electronystagmography and sinusoidal harmonic acceleration rotary chair testing. All test results were normal for spontaneous nystagmus with or without visual fixation, oculocephalic reflex, dynamic visual acuity, head-shaking nystagmus, Quix test, and Dix-Hallpike maneuver. Electronystagmography test results were essentially normal for saccades, gaze, Dix-Hallpike, pendular tracking, and caloric evaluation. Rotary chair testing was normal in all 12 patients. These findings suggest that central (brainstem) and peripheral vestibular (inner ear) mechanisms do not account for the complaints of dizziness in the pediatric patient with fibromyalgia. The common musculoskeletal abnormalities of fibromyalgia may affect their proprioceptive orientation, therefore giving them a sense of imbalance.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Cerebral potentials evoked by fast head accelerations.

Fast, time optimal, voluntary horizontal head rotations produce evoked cerebral potentials (EPs). These show distinct amplitudes between 10 and 25 microV and latencies of N1 66 ms, N2 178 ms, P1 295 ms and N3 424 ms. Specifically, an increase in head acceleration is significantly correlated with a decrease of the latency of the EPs and an increase in their normalized amplitude. Control studies with isolated proprioceptive stimulation of the wrists and the neck with the head fixed provided evidence for the dominant vestibular generation of the head movement associated EP that is fine tuned throughout changes in head acceleration.

Acceleration↗

PubMed1988

Chronic urinary retention--a sensory problem?

Factors which predispose some men with benign prostatic hyperplasia to chronic urinary retention whilst others develop acute retention are not understood. In order to assess whether there is an occult neuropathy associated with chronic retention, neurophysiological measurements were used to test the integrity of the lower urinary tract nerve supply. A series of 22 male patients with chronic urinary retention secondary to prostatic hyperplasia underwent sacral reflex latency measurement; 73% demonstrated a sensory suprasacral abnormality with intact spinal reflex arcs. These results suggest that although the sacral reflex pathways are intact, there is a sensory/proprioceptive abnormality in the higher neurological centres which may be an adaptive mechanism to the presence of bladder outflow obstruction.

Adult↗