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PubMed2002

Metabolizable and non-metabolizable sugars activate different signal transduction pathways in tomato.

To gain insight into the regulatory mechanisms of sugar signaling in plants, the effect of derivatives of the transport sugar sucrose (Suc), the Suc isomers palatinose and turanose, and the Suc analog fluoro-Suc were tested. Photo-autotrophic suspension culture cells of tomato (Lycopersicon peruvianum) were used to study their effect on the regulation of marker genes of source and sink metabolism, photosynthesis, and the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Suc and glucose (Glc) resulted in reverse regulation of source and sink metabolism. Whereas the mRNA level of extracellular invertase (Lin6) was induced, the transcript level of small subunit of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RbcS) was repressed. In contrast, turanose, palatinose, and fluoro-Suc only rapidly induced Lin6 mRNA level, whereas the transcript level of RbcS was not affected. The differential effect of the metabolizable and non-metabolizable sugars on RbcS mRNA regulation was reflected by the fact that only Suc and Glc inhibited photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence. The activation of different signal transduction pathways by sugars was further supported by the analysis of the activation of MAPKs. MAPK activity was found to be strongly activated by turanose, palatinose, and fluoro-Suc, but not by Suc and Glc. To analyze the role of sugars in relation to pathogen perception, an elicitor preparation of Fusarium oxysporum lycopersici was used. The strong activation of MAPKs and the fast and transient induction of Lin6 expresssion by the fungal elicitor resembles the effect of turanose, palatinose, and fluoro-Suc and indicates that non-metabolizable sugars are sensed as stress-related stimuli.

Carbohydrate Metabolism↗

PubMed2003

ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase is activated by posttranslational redox-modification in response to light and to sugars in leaves of Arabidopsis and other plant species.

ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) catalyzes the first committed reaction in the pathway of starch synthesis. It was recently shown that potato (Solanum tuberosum) tuber AGPase is subject to redox-dependent posttranslational regulation, involving formation of an intermolecular Cys bridge between the two catalytic subunits (AGPB) of the heterotetrameric holoenzyme (A. Tiessen, J.H.M. Hendriks, M. Stitt, A. Branscheid, Y. Gibon, E.M. Farré, P. Geigenberger [2002] Plant Cell 14: 2191-2213). We show here that AGPase is also subject to posttranslational regulation in leaves of pea (Pisum sativum), potato, and Arabidopsis. Conversion is accompanied by an increase in activity, which involves changes in the kinetic properties. Light and sugars act as inputs to trigger posttranslational regulation of AGPase in leaves. AGPB is rapidly converted from a dimer to a monomer when isolated chloroplasts are illuminated and from a monomer to a dimer when preilluminated leaves are darkened. AGPB is converted from a dimer to monomer when sucrose is supplied to leaves via the petiole in the dark. Conversion to monomeric form increases during the day as leaf sugars increase. This is enhanced in the starchless phosphoglucomutase mutant, which has higher sugar levels than wild-type Columbia-0. The extent of AGPB monomerization correlates with leaf sugar levels, and at a given sugar content, is higher in the light than the dark. This novel posttranslational regulation mechanism will allow starch synthesis to be regulated in response to light and sugar levels in the leaf. It complements the well-characterized regulation network that coordinates fluxes of metabolites with the recycling of phosphate during photosynthetic carbon fixation and sucrose synthesis.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1997

Enrichment in Specific Soluble Sugars of Two Eucalyptus Cell-Suspension Cultures by Various Treatments Enhances Their Frost Tolerance via a Noncolligative Mechanism.

A cell-suspension culture obtained from the hybrid Eucalyptus gunnii/Eucalyptus globulus was hardened by exposure to lower temperatures, whereas in the same conditions cells from a hybrid with a more frost-sensitive genotype, Eucalyptus cypellocarpa/Eucalyptus globulus, were not able to acclimate. During the cold exposure the resistant cells accumulated soluble sugars, in particular fructose and sucrose, with a limited increase in cell osmolality. In contrast, the cell suspension that was unable to acclimate did not accumulate soluble sugars in response to the same cold treatment. To an extent similar to that induced after a cold acclimation, frost-hardiness of the cells increased after a 14-h incubation with specific soluble sugars such as sucrose, raffinose, fructose, and mannitol. Such hardening was also observed for long-term cultures in mannitol-enriched medium. This cryoprotective effect of sugars without exposure to lower temperatures was observed in both the resistant and the sensitive genotypes. Mannitol was one of the most efficient carbohydrates for the cryoprotection of eucalyptus. The best hardiness (a 2.7-fold increase in relative freezing tolerance) was obtained for the resistant cells by the cumulative effect of cold-induced acclimation and mannitol treatment. This positive effect of certain sugars on eucalyptus freezing tolerance was not colligative, since it was independent of osmolality and total sugar content.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1966

Effect of temperature on invertase, invertase inhibitor, and sugars in potato tubers.

The accumulation of reducing sugars in potato tubers exposed to low temperatures occurs with concomitant formation of the enzyme invertase. During the initial period of cold treatment when reducing sugars increase rapidly, invertase formation proceeds until the level of enzyme exceeds that of an endogenous macromolecular invertase inhibitor, resulting in a basal invertase activity. As the rate of sugar accumulation decreases and the sugar level becomes nearly constant, total invertase decreases, the basal activity disappears, and a low excess of inhibitor develops. On transfer of cold-stored tubers to warmer temperatures, sugars and invertase decrease sharply and a large excess of inhibitor develops. These changes in sugars, invertase and inhibitor occur reversibly when the tubers are subjected to alternating temperatures.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1981

Protonation and light synergistically convert plasmalemma sugar carrier system in mesophyll protoplasts to its fully activated form.

The course of sugar fluxes into and out of protoplasts isolated from the mesophyll of Pisum sativum L. has been followed over brief time intervals (minutes). Light strongly stimulated net sugar influx at pH 8 as well as at pH 5.5. The proton conductor carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) inhibited initial influx in the light, both at pH 8.0 and at pH 5.5. CCCP was without effect in the dark at either pH. All these results applied both to sucrose and to the nonmetabolizable glucose analog 3-O-methyl-d-glucose.When protoplasts at pH 5.5 were transferred from light to darkness, "stored" light driving force maintained uptake in the dark at the full light rate for the first 7 minutes. At pH 8, however, even 4 minutes after transfer to dark, uptake was well below the light rate. Initial uptake rates over a range of external concentrations were derived from progress curves obtained in the light and in the dark, both at pH 5.5 and at 7.7. When initial rate was plotted against concentration, simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics were observed only under the condition pH 5.5, light. In the dark at both pH values, and in the light at pH 7.7, complex curves with intermediate plateaus were obtained, strongly resembling curves reported for systems where mixed negative and positive cooperativity is operating.The same "K(m) for protons" was observed in the dark and in the light (10(-7) molar). Switching protoplasts in the dark from pH 8 to 5.5 failed to drive sugar transport by imposed protonmotive force, as judged by lack of sensitivity to CCCP. Switching protoplasts which had taken up sugar in the dark at pH 5.5 to pH 7 induced net efflux of sugar. Flux analysis showed that this effect was entirely due to the prompt fall in influx.It is concluded from the kinetic experiments that protonation alone is not sufficient to convert the sugar transport system to its fully activated high affinity form. A further light-dependent factor which acts synergistically with protonation is required.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1983

Auxin-induced ethylene production as related to auxin metabolism in leaf discs of tobacco and sugar beet.

Exogenously supplied indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) stimulated ethylene production in tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) leaf discs but not in those of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.). The stimulatory effect of IAA in tobacco was relatively small during the first 24 hours of incubation but became greater during the next 24 hours. It was found that leaf discs of these two species metabolized [1-(14)C]IAA quite differently. The rate of decarboxylation in sugar beet discs was much higher than in tobacco. The latter contained much less free IAA but a markedly higher level of IAA conjugates. The major conjugate in the sugar beet extracts was indole-3-acetylaspartic acid, whereas tobacco extracts contained mainly three polar IAA conjugates which were not found in the sugar beet extracts. The accumulation of the unidentified conjugates corresponded with the rise of ethylene production in the tobacco leaf discs. Reapplication of all the extracted IAA conjugates resulted in a great stimulation of ethylene production by tobacco leaf discs which was accompanied by decarboxylation of the IAA conjugates. The results suggest that in tobacco IAA-treated leaf discs the IAA conjugates could stimulate ethylene production by a slow release of free IAA. The inability of the exogenously supplied IAA to stimulate ethylene production in the sugar beet leaf discs was not due to a deficiency of free IAA within the tissue but rather to the lack of responsiveness of this tissue to IAA, probably because of an autoinhibitory mechanism existing in the sugar beet leaf discs.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1984

Nonosmotic inhibition by sugars of the ethylene-forming activity associated with microsomal membranes from carnation petals.

The activity of the membrane-bound ethylene-forming enzyme, previously reported in carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L. cv White Sim) petals (Mayak, Legge, Thompson 1981 Planta 153: 49-55), is inhibited by sugars. Of the various sugars tested, sorbitol was the most effective and glucose the least. The effect of sugars was also evaluated on solubilized ethylene-forming enzyme activity, obtained by the use of 0.6% Nonidet NP-40 detergent. Similar to the membrane-bound activity, the solubilized activity was also inhibited. Kinetic studies revealed that the inhibition by sugars is reversible, and that inhibition by sucrose is uncompetitive while that by sorbitol is competitive. During senescence of petals, a decline in sugar content and climacteric like increase in ethylene occurs. Hence, the physiological relevance of sugar inhibition and its possible involvement in the regulation of ethylene biosynthesis is suggested.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1984

Sugar regulation of plastid interconversions in epicarp of citrus fruit.

Seasonal transformations between chloroplasts and chromoplasts, as measured by changes in chlorophyll content, in the epicarp of degreening and regreening Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck cv Valencia fruit closely parallelled the accumulation and later loss of soluble sugars. At any stage of development, reversing the relative soluble sugar content in the epicarp by culturing pericarp segments on agar media with low (15 millimolar) or high (150 millimolar) sucrose concentrations reversed the direction of change in chlorophyll content. Fruit of C. madurensis Lour., which mature year around and do not regreen, also accumulated soluble sugars in the pericarp as degreening was initiated.The epicarp of C. sinensis fruit accumulated nitrogen, but total nitrogen concentrations and amino acid concentrations changed little, during degreening and regreening of C. sinensis fruit. Cessation of nitrogen fertilization reduced the tendency of pericarp segments to regreen in vitro during subsequent years, but regreening tendency was restored by inclusion of KNO(3) in the media.It is concluded that chloroplasts become chromoplasts and citrus fruit degreen partially in response to the accumulation of sugars in the epicarp and that the reverse transformation accompanying regreening of certain citrus species occurs when accumulated sugars disappear. Change in nitrogen flux to the fruit is probably not a factor in regulating seasonal transformations, but an abundance of nitrogen in the epicarp diminishes the effects of high sugar concentrations in inducing transformation of chloroplasts to chromoplasts, thereby retarding degreening and promoting regreening.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1985

Sugar Efflux from Maize (Zea mays L.) Pedicel Tissue.

Sugar release from the pedicel tissue of maize (Zea mays L.) kernels was studied by removing the distal portion of the kernel and the lower endosperm, followed by replacement of the endosperm with an agar solute trap. Sugars were unloaded into the apoplast of the pedicel and accumulated in the agar trap while the ear remained attached to the maize plant. The kinetics of (14)C-assimilate movement into treated versus intact kernels were comparable. The rate of unloading declined with time, but sugar efflux from the pedicel continued for at least 6 hours and in most experiments the unloading rates approximated those necessary to support normal kernel growth rates. The unloading process was challenged with a variety of buffers, inhibitors, and solutes in order to characterize sugar unloading from this tissue.Unloading was not affected by apoplastic pH or a variety of metabolic inhibitors. Although p-chloromercuribenzene sulfonic acid (PCMBS), a nonpenetrating sulfhydryl group reagent, did not affect sugar unloading, it effectively inhibited extracellular acid invertase. When the pedicel cups were pretreated with PCMBS, at least 60% of sugars unloaded from the pedicel could be identified as sucrose. Unloading was inhibited up to 70% by 10 millimolar CaCl(2). Unloading was stimulated by 15 millimolar ethyleneglycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid which partially reversed the inhibitory effects of Ca(2+). Based on these results, we suggest that passive efflux of sucrose occurs from the maize pedicel symplast followed by extracellular hydrolysis to hexoses.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1994

Sugar sensing in higher plants.

Sugar repression of photosynthetic genes is likely a central control mechanism mediating energy homeostasis in a wide range of algae and higher plants. It overrides light activation and is coupled to developmental and environmental regulations. How sugar signals are sensed and transduced to the nucleus remains unclear. To elucidate sugar-sensing mechanisms, we monitored the effects of a variety of sugars, glucose analogs, and metabolic intermediates on photosynthetic fusion genes in a sensitive and versatile maize protoplast transient expression system. The results show that sugars that are the substrates of hexokinase (HK) cause repression at a low concentration (1 to 10 mM), indicating a low degree of specificity and the irrelevance of osmotic change. Studies with various glucose analogs suggest that glucose transport across the plasma membrane is necessary but not sufficient to trigger repression, whereas subsequent phosphorylation by HK may be required. The effectiveness of 2-deoxyglucose, a nonmetabolizable glucose analog, and the ineffectiveness of various metabolic intermediates in eliciting repression eliminate the involvement of glycolysis and other metabolic pathways. Replenishing intracellular phosphate and ATP diminished by hexoses does not overcome repression. Because mannoheptulose, a specific HK inhibitor, blocks the severe repression triggered by 2-deoxyglucose and yet the phosphorylated products per se do not act as repression signals, we propose that HK may have dual functions and may act as a key sensor and signal transmitter of sugar repression in higher plants.

Biological Transport↗

PubMed1994

Phosphate Modulates Transcription of Soybean VspB and Other Sugar-Inducible Genes.

The soybean vegetative storage protein genes VspA and VspB encode vacuolar glycoprotein acid phosphatases. Transcription of the Vsp is synergistically activated by jasmonic acid or methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and soluble sugars. The action of these modulators is mediated by two different DNA domains in the VspB promoter. In this study, we present new data regarding VspB regulation by sucrose and inorganic phosphate, which suggest a common mechanism of transcriptional control for Vsp and other sugar-inducible genes. We found that the sugar-mediated activation of VspB expression was inhibited by phosphate. Deletion analysis and transient assays in tobacco protoplasts identified a 130-bp DNA domain in the VspB promoter that mediates both sucrose induction and phosphate inhibition. Transcription mediated by this DNA domain was induced by phosphate elimination from the protoplast incubation medium, even in the absence of sucrose. The effect of sucrose and phosphate on VspB expression was studied in vivo in several ways. Depletion of phosphate from soybean cell cultures by the addition of mannose stimulated VspB expression, even in the absence of sucrose or MeJA. In illuminated soybean leaves treated with MeJA, inhibition of photosynthetic electron transport by DCMU decreased VspB expression. In contrast, VspB expression in soybean leaves stimulated by phosphate depletion was not influenced by DCMU. Moreover, sucrose-stimulated expression of the sugar-responsive genes lipoxygenase A and chalcone synthase of soybean and proteinase inhibitor II and class I patatin of potato was inhibited by phosphate. Like VspB, these genes were stimulated by phosphate depletion in the absence of exogenous sucrose. We propose that sugar-responsive genes are activated, in part, by accumulation of sugar-phosphates and concomitant reduction of cellular phosphate levels. These data may help explain recruitment of the Vsp, which encode acid phosphatases, as vegetative storage proteins.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1996

A Similar Dichotomy of Sugar Modulation and Developmental Expression Affects Both Paths of Sucrose Metabolism: Evidence from a Maize Invertase Gene Family.

Invertase and sucrose synthase catalyze the two known paths for the first step in carbon use by sucrose-importing plant cells. The hypothesis that sugar-modulated expression of these genes could provide a means of import adjustment was initially suggested based on data from sucrose synthases alone; however, this hypothesis remained largely conjectural without critical evidence for invertases. Toward this end, a family of maize invertases was cloned and characterized. Here, we show that invertases are indeed sugar modulated and, surprisingly, like the sucrose synthase genes, fall into two classes with contrasting sugar responses. In both families, one class of genes is upregulated by increasing carbohydrate supply (Sucrose synthase1 [Sus1] and Invertase2 [Ivr2]), whereas a second class in the same family is repressed by sugars and upregulated by depletion of this resource (Shrunken1 [Sh1] and Invertase1 [Ivr1]). The two classes also display differential expression during development, with sugar-enhanced genes (Sus1 and Ivr2) expressed in many importing organs and sugar-repressed, starvation-tolerant genes (Sh1 and Ivr1) upregulated primarily during reproductive development. Both the Ivr1 and Ivr2 invertase mRNAs are abundant in root tips, very young kernels, silk, anthers, and pollen, where a close relationship is evident between changes in message abundance and soluble invertase activity. During development, patterns of expression shift as assimilate partitioning changes from elongating silks to newly fertilized kernels. Together, the data support a model for integrating expression of genes differentially responsive to carbohydrate availability (i.e., feast and famine conditions) with developmental signals. The demonstration that similar regulatory patterns occur in both paths of sucrose metabolism indicates a potential to influence profoundly the adjustment of carbon resource allocation.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2004

Evaluation of a triple sugar test of colonic permeability in humans.

AIM: Conventional dual sugar tests of intestinal permeability assess only the stomach and small intestine. A novel triple sugar method of assessing colonic permeability has recently been described in animals. This utilizes the non-fermented sweetener sucralose, in addition to conventional sugars. It has been postulated that this test enables the simultaneous assessment of small-intestinal and colonic barrier function in humans. The aim of this study was to evaluate the triple sugar test using healthy volunteers and ileostomists. METHODS: Twenty-one healthy volunteers and 18 ileostomists underwent the triple sugar test. After an overnight fast, subjects drank a solution containing lactulose (5 g), rhamnose (1 g) and sucralose (5 g). Urine was collected for 0-5 h and 5-19 h. Urinary sugars were quantified using HPLC, and 5 and 24-h excretion calculated. Nineteen control subjects and 16 ileostomists also underwent a 51Cr-EDTA permeability test. Permeability data were presented as medians (IQR), and differences between groups analysed with Mann-Whitney U-tests. RESULTS: Lactulose excretion and the 5-h lactulose/rhamnose (L/R) ratio were similar in controls and ileostomists [L/R ratio 0.024 (0.022-0.034) vs. 0.025 (0.022-0.035), P = 0.955]. Twenty-four hours excretion of sucralose was significantly higher in control subjects compared with ileostomists [1.41% (1.17-1.68) vs. 0.96% (0.64-1.2), P = 0.003]. The same pattern was seen with 51Cr-EDTA [2.73% (2.06-3.76) vs. 2.06% (1.55-2.71), P = 0.037] and with lactulose [0.52% (0.42-0.60) vs. 0.25% (0.16-0.35), P = 0.002]. CONCLUSIONS: Both sucralose and 51Cr-EDTA underwent significant colonic absorption. A significant amount of lactulose also appeared to be absorbed in the colon. This unexpected finding requires further study.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Sugars in the alimentary canal of Lutzomyia youngi (Diptera: phlebotominae).

Gas chromatography (GC) analysis of 159 specimens (144 females and 15 males) of Lutzomyia youngi collected in Shannon traps in a coffee plantation in the Andean region of western Venezuela, where leishmaniasis is endemic, revealed the presence of fructose, sucrose, glucose and maltose in the gut and crop of the wild sandflies. The identification of the sugars was confirmed by comparing retention times with those observed for standard sugars and those obtained from sandflies experimentally fed on known sugar solutions. Although the sandflies in nature may ingest each of the four sugars, the results suggest that it is more probable there is an invertase enzyme (glycosidase?) in the gut or crop of the sandfly which hydrolyses ingested disaccharides (e.g. sucrose) to the constituent monosaccharides (i.e. fructose and glucose). Ecological and altitudinal distributions of sandfly species may be related to the availability of specific sugar sources, with epidemiological implications. Identification of the preferred sugar could make breeding easier and would facilitate further research on Leishmania-vector relationships.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Sugar and ABA responsiveness of a minimal RBCS light-responsive unit is mediated by direct binding of ABI4.

Photosynthesis-associated nuclear genes (PhANGs) are able to respond to multiple environmental and developmental signals, including light, sugars and abscisic acid (ABA). PhANGs have been extensively studied at the level of transcriptional regulation and several cis-acting elements important for light responsiveness have been identified in their promoter sequences. However, the regulatory elements involved in sugar and ABA regulation of PhANGs have not been completely characterized. Using conserved modular arrangement 5 (CMA5), a previously characterized minimal light-responsive unit, we show that in Arabidopsis thaliana this unit responds not only positively to light signals, but also negatively to sugars and ABA. The latter responses were found to be impaired in the abi4 mutant, indicating that ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE-4 (ABI4) is a regulator involved in sugar and ABA repression of this minimal regulatory unit. Furthermore, we report a new sequence element conserved in several rbcS promoters, herewith named S-box, which is important for the sugar and ABA responsiveness of CMA5. This sequence corresponds to a putative ABI4-binding site, which is in fact bound by the Arabidopsis ABI4 protein in vitro. The S-box is closely associated with the G-box present in CMA5, and this association is conserved in the promoters of several RBCS genes. This phylogenetically conserved promoter feature probably reflects a common regulatory mechanism and identifies a point of convergence between light- and sugar-signaling pathways.

Abscisic Acid↗

PubMed1992

Structures and functions of the sugar chains of glycoproteins.

Most proteins within living organisms contain sugar chains. Recent advancements in cell biology have revealed that many of these sugar chains play important roles as signals for cell-surface recognition phenomena in multi-cellular organisms. In order to elucidate the biological information included in the sugar chains and link them with biology, a novel scientific field called 'glycobiology' has been established. This review will give an outline of the analytical techniques for the structural study of the sugar chains of glycoproteins, the structural characteristics of the sugar chains and the biosynthetic mechanism to produce such characteristics. Based on this knowledge, functional aspects of the sugar chains of glycohormones and of those in the immune system will be described to help others understand this new scientific field.

Animals↗

PubMed1978

Patterns of sugar consumption in early infancy.

A study is described in which patterns of sugar consumption in early infancy have been investigated in a rural area in Britain. A representative group of 94 mothers of first babies aged 8-11 months answered questions on the introduction of various foods and drinks containing sugar to their babies' diet. A diet sheet was completed in order to estimate the frequency of sugar consumption on the previous day for both the mother and her child. The findings show that babies received sweet items on an average of 4.3 separate occasions and that 77% of the meals and snacks given to babies contained sugar. The study describes some of the specific ways which sugar is first introduced and concludes that the frequency of sugar consumption is high, even in the 1st year of life.

Dental Caries↗

PubMed1981

Dental caries in South African black and white high school pupils in relation to sugar intake and snack habits.

DMFT scores, total sugar intakes and snacks habits were determined in 1918 South African Black pupils (923 rural, 995 urban) and 724 White pupils (English and Afrikaans speaking) aged 16-18 years inclusive. Mean DMFT scores of school groups of Black pupils (both sexes) ranged from 0.9 and 2.0 in rural areas, to 4.2-6.7 in urban areas (where data were far higher than such obtained 7 years ago), and were 9.2 and 10.2 for White pupils. Corresponding mean daily sugar intake were - rural Blacks, 69 g and 97 g, urban Blacks 118-141 g, respectively (all slightly higher than previously); and Whites 102 g and 123 g. Mean DMFT scores of girls were higher than those of boys; yet while mean sugar intakes of Blacks girls and boys were somewhat similar, White girls' intakes were much lower than those of White boys. In the ethnic-sex groups studied, mean DMFT scores for pupils in upper, compared with lower, third of sugar intake, were higher in nine of the 14 sub-groups. Mean DMFT scores in upper, compared with lower, third of exposure to snack practices were higher in 11 of the 14 groups. However, most of the differences were slight. In further research, more intensive enquiries should be pursued on roles of ethnic and familial factors, as well as on roles of inter-acting dietary components additional to sugar and sugar-containing foods.

Adolescent↗