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PubMed1984

Interhemispheric transfer of voluntary motor commands in man.

The lack of callosal fibres between homotopic areas of the hand in the sensorimotor cortex in man and its possible functional correlates were investigated in normal adult subjects by comparing simple reaction times (RTs) of voluntary movements triggered by a somaesthetic stimulus to the same or opposite side of the body. An air jet was delivered to the skin of distal (index finger) or proximal (shoulder) ipsi- or contralateral zones, and triggered voluntary extension of the index finger or flexion of the forearm. The RT was measured from the arrival of the stimulus to the skin to the onset of the surface EMG of the muscle extensor indicis proprius or biceps brachii. The RTs of the contralateral finger movements triggered by either proximal or distal skin stimuli were significantly longer than the RTs of the corresponding ipsilateral movements (mean difference 11.72 and 15.10 msec respectively). When the task was flexion of the forearm, the differences in RTs between contra- and ipsilateral movements were instead compatible with a transcallosal transfer (mean difference about 2 msec in both cases). It is concluded that transcallosal connections between hand sensorimotor areas are conceivably absent also in man. Furthermore, the delay in contralateral distal performance appears to be due to a lack of transfer of the command through the motor areas, rather than to a lack of transfer of the triggering cutaneous afferent information to the performing hemisphere.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Single- and multiple-event paradigms for identification of motor cortex activation.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The "single-event" technique has been used as an alternative to the "block-trial" method to detect activation that may be accompanied by head motion. The purpose of this study was to compare the two methods for measuring activation in the sensorimotor cortex secondary to motor tasks. METHODS: Functional MR imaging data were acquired from six participants as they performed tasks with their fingers, tongues, and toes in a block-trial and a single-event paradigm. For the block trial, the participant was instructed to perform the task when cued at a rapid self-timed rate for 15 seconds, alternating with 15 seconds of rest. Five periods of task performance and six rest periods were included in one acquisition. For the single-event method, the participant performed the task a single time every 15 seconds when cued by the investigator, for a total of 21 times. Using conventional parcellation methods, activation was detected by a cross-correlation technique and was classified as occurring in the sensorimotor cortex, supplementary motor area (SMA), or as nonspecific. Differences between the two acquisition paradigms were tested using the standard t test at a significance level of P < .05. RESULTS: Activation was identified by both the block-trial and the single-event methods for the finger task, for the tongue task, and inconsistently for the toe task. More motion artifact occurred in conjunction with the toe and tongue tasks than with the finger tasks. On average, more activated pixels were identified by the single-event method than by the block-trial method. For these motor tasks, however, a larger percentage of pixels detected by the block-trial method than by the single-event method were specific for the sensorimotor cortex or SMA as sites of activation. CONCLUSION: For the tongue and the toe movement tasks, which may produce some head motion artifacts, the single-event paradigm provides a useful alternative to the block-trial method for identifying the sensorimotor cortex or SMA. It does not achieve a greater percentage of activation within primary motor areas. For the finger movement task, which does not usually produce head motion artifacts, the block-trial method generally produced a greater percentage of activated pixels in the sensorimotor cortex or SMA than did the single-event method.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Behavioral toxicology, risk assessment, and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Behavioral end points are being used with greater frequency in neurotoxicology to detect and characterize the adverse effects of chemicals on the nervous system. Behavioral measures are particularly important for neurotoxicity risk assessment since many known neurotoxicants do not result in neuropathology. The chlorinated hydrocarbon class consists of a wide variety of chemicals including polychlorinated biphenyls, clioquinol, trichloroethylene, hexachlorophene, organochlorine insecticides (DDT, dicofol, chlordecone,dieldrin, and lindane), and phenoxyherbicides. Each of these chemicals has effects on motor, sensory, or cognitive function that are detectable using functional measures such as behavior. Furthermore, there is evidence that if exposure occurs during critical periods of development, many of the chlorinated hydrocarbons are developmental neurotoxicants. Developmental neurotoxicity is frequently expressed as alterations in motor function or cognitive abilities or changes in the ontogeny of sensorimotor reflexes. Neurotoxicity risk assessment should include assessments of the full range of possible neurotoxicological effects, including both structural and functional indicators of neurotoxicity.

Behavior↗

PubMed2006

Sensorimotor gating deficits in adults with autism.

BACKGROUND: Prepulse inhibition (PPI) is an operational measure of sensorimotor gating and is impaired in a family of neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by abnormalities of inhibitory function. Adults with autistic disorder (AD) exhibit clinical features of inhibitory deficits, such as restrictive and repetitive behaviors, that may be explained by deficits in sensorimotor gating. METHODS: Acoustic startle reactivity, habituation, and PPI (30-, 60-, 120-msec interstimulus intervals) were assessed in 14 adult men diagnosed with AD and 16 typically developing normal comparison (NC) participants. All participants were administered measures of intelligence and frontal-executive functioning. RESULTS: Adults with AD exhibited significantly less PPI in the 60-msec condition than NC participants, which was correlated with increased ratings of restricted and repetitive behaviors. The groups did not differ on measures of startle amplitude or overall habituation. There was, however, a significant group-by-block habituation effect. Furthermore, PPI was not related to intelligence but was moderately associated with performance on a measure of frontal-executive functioning. CONCLUSIONS: Adults with AD have sensorimotor gating deficits similar to other neurodevelopmental disorders, implicating a failure of normal inhibitory regulation of sensory, motor, and attentional mechanisms. Thus, PPI deficits may be indirectly linked to one of the hallmark features of AD.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMed2024

Dominant NARS1 mutations causing axonal Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease expand NARS1-associated diseases.

Pathogenic variants in six aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (ARS) genes are implicated in neurological disorders, most notably inherited peripheral neuropathies. ARSs are enzymes that charge tRNA molecules with cognate amino acids. Pathogenic variants in asparaginyl-tRNA synthetase (NARS1) cause a neurological phenotype combining developmental delay, ataxia and demyelinating peripheral neuropathy. NARS1 has not yet been linked to axonal Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Exome sequencing of patients with inherited peripheral neuropathies revealed three previously unreported heterozygous NARS1 variants in three families. Clinical and electrophysiological details were assessed. We further characterized all three variants in a yeast complementation model and used a knock-in mouse model to study variant p.Ser461Phe. All three variants (p.Met236del, p.Cys342Tyr and p.Ser461Phe) co-segregate with the sensorimotor axonal neuropathy phenotype. Yeast complementation assays show that none of the three NARS1 variants support wild-type yeast growth when tested in isolation (i.e. in the absence of a wild-type copy of NARS1), consistent with a loss-of-function effect. Similarly, the homozygous knock-in mouse model (p.Ser461Phe/Ser472Phe in mouse) also demonstrated loss-of-function characteristics. We present three previously unreported NARS1 variants segregating with a sensorimotor neuropathy phenotype in three families. Functional studies in yeast and mouse support variant pathogenicity. Thus, NARS1 is the seventh ARS implicated in dominant axonal Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, further stressing that all dimeric ARSs should be evaluated for Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.

Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease↗

PubMed1984

Control of multimovement coordination: sensorimotor mechanisms in speech motor programming.

The present paper provides some hypotheses concerning the role of sensorimotor mechanisms in the coordination and programming of multimovement behaviors. The primary database is from experiments on the control of speech, a motor behavior that inherently requires multimovement coordination. From these data, it appears that coordination may be implemented by calibrated, sensorimotor actions which couple multiple movements for the accomplishment of common functional goals. The data from speech and select observations in other motor systems also reveal that these sensorimotor linkages are task-dependent and may underlie the intermovement motor equivalence that characterizes many natural motor behaviors. In this context, it is hypothesized also that motor learning may involve the calibration of these intermovement sensorimotor actions. These observations in turn provide some alternative perspectives on the concept of a motor program, primarily suggesting that individual movements and muscle contractions are not wholly prespecified, but shaped by sensorimotor adjustments.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1977

[Heterochronous maturation of pathways from muscle and skin receptors to the sensomotor cortex in rabbits].

Analysis of structural and functional maturation of peripheral afferent projections from the skin and muscle receptors of the n. ischiadicus to sensorimotor cortex during postnatal ontogeny in rabbits, as the criterion of functional maturity of the peripheral nervous fibers, had their sensitivity to blocking effect of novocain during its application to the muscle and skin branches of the n. ischiadicus. During the ontogeny, the sensitivity was changing wcich was followed by changes in the shape of the cortical evoked response. The morphological maturity of the peripheral fibers was estimated by the degree of their myelinization. The afferent impulses were found to have different channels of conduction yet at the level of peripheral nervous fibers. This implies participation of different peripheral fibers in organization of EP components in the cortex. The fibers mature heterochronously during the ontogeny, the same is true for maturation of afferent projections from the muscle and skin receptors.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2006

Behavioral tests for preclinical intervention assessment.

Select functional outcome tests commonly used for evaluating sensorimotor and cognitive capacity in rodents with focal intracerebral ischemic or hemorrhagic injury are described, along with upgrades and issues of concern for translational research. An emphasis is placed on careful quantitative and qualitative assessment of acute and long-term behavioral deficits, and on avoidance of frequent pitfalls. Methods for detecting different degrees of injury and treatment-related improvements are included. Determining the true potential of an intervention requires a set of behavioral analyses that can monitor compensatory learning. In a number of preclinical outcome tests, animals can develop remarkably effective "tricks" that are difficult to detect but frequently lead to dramatic improvements in performance, particularly with repeated practice. However, some interventions may facilitate learning without promoting brain repair, but these may not translate into a meaningful level of benefit in the clinic. Additionally, it is important to determine whether there are any preinjury functional asymmetries in order to accurately assess damage-related changes in behavior. This is illustrated by the fact that some animals have chronic endogenous asymmetries and that others, albeit infrequently, can sustain a spontaneous cerebral stroke, without any experimental induction, that can lead to chronic deficits as reflected by behavioral, imaging, and histological analyses. Finally, a useful new modification of the water maze that involves moving the platform from trial to trial within the target quadrant is reviewed, and its advantages over the standard version are discussed.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Projections to the basilar pontine nuclei from face sensory and motor regions of the cerebral cortex in the rat.

Orthograde axonal transport tracing methods were used to describe the projections to the basilar pontine nuclei (BPN) which arise within the face representation of motor or somatosensory cerebral cortex. Injections centered in motor face (MF) cortex resulted in the labeling of several corticopontine terminal fields which exhibit a rostrocaudal columnar arrangement within the ipsilateral BPN. The location of such terminal zones is consistent with the somatotopic pattern of termination previously described for limb sensorimotor cortices. In contrast, the projections from somatosensory face (SF) cortical regions largely terminate in BPN areas separate from those receiving either limb sensorimotor or MF inputs. Both MF and SF cortices also give rise to projections to the contralateral BPN; those from SF cortex are less extensive than those of MF origin. In addition to their relationship with limb sensorimotor corticopontine terminations, the MF projections to the BPN also seem to partially overlap the projection zones of the cerebellopontine system, particularly the regions projected upon by the lateral cerebellar nucleus. The SF projections, on the other hand, appear to terminate in BPN areas that also receive input from either the dorsal column nuclei or the spinal trigeminal complex. There is only minimal potential overlap between MF and SF projections in the BPN. With regard to the pontocerebellar system, the projections from MF cortex terminate among BPN neurons which project to the cerebellar hemispheres, particularly lobus simplex, crus I and crus II. The SF projections also overlap BPN neurons which project to the lateral hemispheres in addition to the paraflocculus and vermal lobules VII and IXa,b. Taken together these observations suggest that subsets of BPN neurons might exist such that some receive convergent inputs from systems whose function can generally be regarded as motor (sensorimotor cortex, cerebellopontine) while another population of BPN neurons might integrate signals from systems which transmit somatosensory information (dorsal column nuclei, spinal trigeminal).

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Functional reorganisation of the corticomotor projection to the hand in skilled racquet players.

While it is known that relatively rapid changes in functional representation may occur in the human sensorimotor cortex in short-term motor-learning studies, there have been few studies of changes in organisation of the corticomotor system associated with the long-term acquisition of motor skills. In the present study, we have used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to investigate the corticomotor projection to the hand in a group of elite racquet players, who have developed and maintained a high level of skill over a period of many years, and have compared the findings with those in a group of social players and a group of non-playing control subjects. Increased motor-evoked-potential (MEP) amplitudes and shifts in the cortical motor maps for the playing hand were found in all of the elite players and cortical motor thresholds were reduced in some players, whereas in the social players all parameters were within the normal range. The findings in the elite players are interpreted as being indications of a process of functional reorganisation with the motor cortex or corticomotor pathway that are associated with the acquisition and retention of complex motor skills.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Cortical mapping by functional magnetic resonance imaging in patients with brain tumors.

The aim of our study was to establish the effectiveness of the functional MRI (fMRI) technique in comparison with intraoperative cortical stimulation (ICS) in planning cortex-saving neurosurgical interventions. The combination of sensory and motor stimulation during fMRI experiments was used to improve the exactness of central sulcus localization. The study subjects were 30 volunteers and 33 patients with brain tumors in the rolandic area. Detailed topographical relations of activated areas in fMRI and intraoperative techniques were compared. The agreement in the location defined by the two methods for motor centers was found to be 84%; for sensory centers it was 83%. When both kinds of activation are taken into account this agreement increases to 98%. A significant relation was found between fMRI and ICS for the agreement of the distance both for motor and sensory centers (p=0.0021-0.0024). Also a strong dependence was found between the agreement of the location and the agreement of the distance for both kinds of stimulation. The spatial correlation between fMRI and ICS methods for the sensorimotor cortex is very high. fMRI combining functional and structural information is very helpful for preoperative neurosurgical planning. The sensitivity of the fMRI technique in brain mapping increases when using both motor and sensory paradigms in the same patient.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Concordance between functional magnetic resonance imaging and intraoperative language mapping.

Although the correspondence between functional-magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) representations of the sensorimotor cortex and intraoperative electrophysiology (including somatosensory evoked potential, SSEP, recordings and direct cortical stimulation) has been reported, a similar correspondence between fMRI and intraoperative localization of the language-sensitive cortex is not as well established. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the concordance between fMRI and intraoperative electrophysiology with respect to the localization of the language-sensitive and sensorimotor cortices. We present the results of 21 patients who underwent language and sensorimotor mapping by fMRI and intraoperative electrophysiology including SSEP recordings (n = 21), direct cortical stimulation of motor cortex (n = 15) and direct cortical stimulation of Broca's and Wernicke's area (n = 5). When responses were obtained with both methods, localization of function concurred in all cases. These observations suggest that fMRI represents a reliable preoperative tool for the identification of language-sensitive areas.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Influence of naturally occurring variations in maternal care on prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle and the medial prefrontal cortical dopamine response to stress in adult rats.

In rats, naturally occurring variations in maternal care contribute to the development of individual differences in the behavioral and neuroendocrine responses to stress during adulthood. The dopamine (DA) projection to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) plays an important role in mediating stress responsivity and is thought to be involved also in regulating sensorimotor gating. In the present study, we compared prepulse inhibition (PPI) of acoustic startle as well as the left and right mPFC DA stress responses in the adult offspring of high- and low-licking/grooming (LG) dams. Our data indicate that the offspring of low-LG animals are impaired on measures of PPI compared with high-LG animals. We also observed in low-LG animals a significant blunting of the mPFC DA stress responses that was lateralized to the right hemisphere, whereas in high-LG animals, the left and right mPFC DA stress responses were equally attenuated. Although mPFC levels of DA transporter did not differ between the two groups of animals, mPFC levels of catechol-O-methyl transferase immunoreactivity of low-LG animals were significantly lower than those of high-LG animals. These data provide evidence that variations in maternal care can lead to lasting changes in mPFC DA responsivity to stress and suggest the possibility that such changes in mesocorticolimbic DA function can also lead to deficits in sensorimotor gating.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMed1998

Proprioceptive information processing in weightlessness.

The "illusions" experiment carried out on five astronauts during the last two French-Russian flights (Antarès in 1992 and Altaïr in 1993) and in the Russian Post-Antarès mission (1993) was designed to investigate the adaptive changes in human proprioceptive functions occurring in weightlessness at both the sensorimotor and cognitive levels, focusing on two kinds of responses: (1) whole-body postural reflexes, and (2) whole-body movement perception. These kinesthetic and motor responses were induced using the tendon-vibration method, which is known to selectively activate the proprioceptive muscular sensory channel and to elicit either motor reactions or illusory movement sensations. Vibration (70 Hz) was therefore applied to ankle (soleus or tibialis) and neck (splenii) muscles. The subject's whole-body motor responses were analyzed from EMG and goniometric recordings. The perceived vibration-induced kinesthetic sensations were mimicked by the subjects with a joystick. The main results show that a parallel in-flight attenuation of the vibration-induced postural responses and kinesthetic illusions occurred, which seems to indicate that the proprioceptive system adapts to the microgravity context, where standing posture and conscious coding of anteroposterior body movements are no longer relevant. The same sensory messages are used at the same time in different sensory motor loops and in the coding of newly developed behavioral movements under microgravity. These results suggest that the human proprioceptive system has a high degree of adaptive functional plasticity, at least as far as the perceptual and motor aspects are concerned.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1987

Consequences of damage to the sensorimotor cortex in neonatal and adult cats. II. Maintenance of exuberant projections.

After chronic sensorimotor cortex ablations, sparing and greater recovery of function were seen in neonatally operated cats compared with adult operated cats. These results suggested that undamaged cortex in neonatal operates might display projections different from those of adult operates. Injections of horseradish peroxidase-wheat germ agglutinin (HRP-WGA) were made in ipsilateral parietal cortex adjacent to the sensorimotor cortex ablations or in the contralateral sensorimotor cortex. No changes in the projections of the parietal cortex were seen in operated cats or in the projections of the undamaged sensorimotor cortical projections of adult operates. In contrast, the intact sensorimotor cortex of neonatal operates exhibited crossed corticothalamic and corticorubral projections not present in normal or adult operated animals, whereas the corticospinal tract (CST) was unchanged by the ablations. Analysis of neurons within the ventroanterior-ventrolateral nuclear complex of the thalamus ipsilateral to the ablation showed that the surviving cells of neonatal operates were equal in number but were, on average, larger than those of normals and adult operates. Some neurons in neonatal operates were larger than any seen in adult operates and normals. Injections of HRP/WGA were also made into the sensorimotor cortex of normal newborn animals. Dense bilateral corticothalamic and corticorubral projections were present. The CST had extended to lumbar levels by the day of birth but projections to the grey matter were sparse. Thus, bilateral projections seen in neonatal operates probably represent retention of some exuberant projections present in normal neonatal animals. The CST which exhibited no exuberant projection was unchanged by the lesion. The crossed corticothalamic and corticorubral projections are likely to play a role in sparing and recovery of function particularly in sparing of contact placing.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Mechanisms of recovery of dexterity following unilateral lesion of the sensorimotor cortex in adult monkeys.

The mechanisms of recovery of manual dexterity after unilateral lesion of the sensorimotor cortex in adult primates remain a matter of debate. It has been proposed that the cortical zone adjacent to the lesion may take over part of the function of the damaged cortex. To investigate further this possibility, two adult (4-5 years old) macaque monkeys were trained to perform a natural precision-grip task to assess hand dexterity. Intracortical microstimulations (ICMS) were used to map the hand area in M1 on both hemispheres. Ibotenic acid was then injected intracortically to damage the representation in M1 of the preferred hand. Subsequent histological analysis indicated that the hand representation in M1 was indeed lesioned, but, due to a spread of ibotenic acid, the lesion encroached a significant extent of the hand representation in the primary somatosensory cortex. A few minutes after infusion of ibotenic acid, there was a complete loss of dexterity of the preferred hand, which lasted for 1-2 months. Later, a progressive functional recovery of the affected hand took place over a 3- to 4-month period, reaching a stable level corresponding to 30% of the pre-lesion behavioral score. ICMS remapping, conducted nine months after the lesion, revealed that stimulation of the intact or lesioned M1 did not induce any visible movement of the recovered hand. The M1 hand representation on the intact hemisphere was similar to that observed before the lesion. Transient inactivation of the M1 hand/arm areas or of the dorsal and ventral premotor cortical areas (PM) on both hemispheres was undertaken by using microinjections of the GABA-agonist muscimol. Inactivations of M1 had no effect. Inhibition of PM in the damaged hemisphere suppressed the recovered manual dexterity of the affected hand. These results suggest that PM plays a significant role in the incomplete functional recovery of hand dexterity following unilateral damage of the sensorimotor cortex in adult monkeys.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Stimulus-evoked modulation of sensorimotor pyramidal neuron EPSPs.

Sensory cortical neurons display substantial receptive field dynamics during and after persistent sensory drive. Because a cell's response properties are determined by the inputs it receives, receptive field dynamics are likely to involve changes in the relative efficacy of different inputs to the cell. To test this hypothesis, we have investigated if brief repetitive stimulus drive in vitro alters the efficacy of two types of corticocortical inputs to layer V pyramidal cells. Specifically, we have used whole cell recordings to measure the effect of repetitive electrical stimulation at the layer VI/white matter (WM) border on the synaptic response of layer V pyramidal cells to corticocortical input evoked by electrical stimulation of layer I or layer II/III and emulated by local application of glutamate. Repetitive stimulation (10 Hz for 3 s) at the layer VI/WM border transiently potentiated excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) evoked by electrical stimulation of layer II/III by 97 +/- 12% (mean +/- SE). The recovery of EPSP amplitude to its preconditioning value was well-described by a single-term decaying exponential with a time constant of 7.2 s. The same layer VI/WM conditioning train that evoked layer II/III EPSP potentiation frequently caused an attenuation of layer I EPSPs. Similarly, subthreshold postsynaptic responses to local glutamate application in layers II/III and I were potentiated and attenuated, respectively, by the conditioning stimulus. Potentiation and attenuation could be evoked in the same cell by repositioning the glutamate puffer pipette in the appropriate layer. The conditioning stimulus that led to the transient modification of upper layer EPSP efficacy also evoked a slow depolarization in glial cells. The membrane potential of glial cells recovered with a time course similar to the dissipation of the potentiation effect, suggesting that stimulus-evoked changes in extracellular potassium (ECK) play a role in layer II/III EPSP potentiation. Consistent with this proposal, increasing the bath concentration of ECK caused a substantial increase of layer II/III EPSP amplitude. EPSP potentiation was sensitive to postsynaptic membrane potential and, more importantly, was significantly weaker for synaptic currents than for synaptic potentials, suggesting that it involves the recruitment of a postsynaptic voltage-dependent mechanism. Two observations suggest that layer II/III EPSP potentiation may involve the recruitment of postsynaptic sodium channels: EPSP potentiation was strongly reduced by intracellular application of N-(2,6-dimethyl-phenylcarbamoylmethyl) triethylammonium bromide (QX-314) and responses to local glutamate application were potentiated by high ECK in the presence of cadmium but not in the presence of tetrodotoxin. The results demonstrate a novel way in which brief periods of repetitive stimulus drive are accompanied by rapid, transient, and specific alterations in the functional connectivity and information processing characteristics of sensorimotor cortex.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Cognitive functional magnetic resonance imaging at very-high-field: eye movement control.

The oculomotor system, which optimizes visual interaction with the environment, provides a valuable model system for probing the building blocks of higher-order cognition. Attention shifting, working memory, and inhibition of prepotent responses can be investigated in healthy individuals and patients with brain disorders. Although the neurophysiology of the oculomotor system has been well characterized at the single-cell level in nonhuman primates, its functional architecture in humans determined by evoked response procedures and studies of patients with focal lesions has been limited. Available evidence points to a widely distributed set of neocortical and subcortical brain regions involved in the control of eye movements, including brain stem, cerebellum, thalamus, striatum, and parietal and frontal cortices. The advent of functional magnetic resonance imaging provides a noninvasive manner of localizing, at high spatial resolution, the brain systems that subserve different aspects of sensory and cognitive processes in humans. Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies have already delineated the brain systems subserving sensorimotor and cognitive control of eye movements in adult and pediatric populations. Hence, the combination of functional magnetic resonance imaging and eye movement procedures can be used to probe the integrity of the brain in neurological and psychiatric disorders as well as provide a window into the changes in brain function subserving cognitive development.

Adult↗