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PubMed1995

Maternal reports of behavior problems in preschool Hispanic children: an exploratory study in preventive pediatrics.

Maternal reports on the health, behavioral, and educational characteristics of Hispanic low-income preschoolers were gathered from a pediatric clinic to conduct appropriate consultation and teaching of behavioral issues to pediatric residents. Fifty-two Hispanic mothers attending an urban hospital clinic were given a questionnaire. Interviews provided data on family demographics, children's health status, behavior problems (65 items adapted from Achenbach's 1981 and 1987 Child Behavior Checklists [CBCL]), maternal depression, family life stressful events, and discipline methods. Thirteen externalizing and five internalizing high frequency behaviors were identified. Behavior problem scores were significantly related to the use of yelling and hitting/spanking as methods of discipline. Precarious health status and low enrollment in preschool programs also were reported. A broader preventive role for pediatricians in that pediatric setting was recommended and pursued. Results suggest a broad preventive role for pediatricians and pediatric clinics servicing low-income preschoolers.

Child Behavior↗

PubMed2004

Mapping the neural substrates involved in maternal responsiveness and lamb olfactory memory in parturient ewes using Fos imaging.

In sheep, recognition of the familiar lamb by the mother depends on the learning of its olfactory signature after parturition. The authors quantified Fos changes in order to identify brain regions activated during lamb odor memory formation. Brain activation was compared with those measured in anosmic ewes displaying maternal behavior but not individual lamb recognition. In intact ewes, parturition induced significant increase in Fos expression in olfactory cortical regions and in cortical amygdala, whereas in anosmic mothers, Fos expression was very low. In contrast, no difference was observed between intact and anosmic ewes in hypothalamic areas and medial amygdala, suggesting a differentiation between the neural network controlling maternal responsiveness and that involved in olfactory lamb memory.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

The relationship between cognitive abilities and maternal ratings of externalizing behaviors in preschool children.

The association between child cognitive abilities and maternal ratings of child externalizing behaviors was investigated in a randomly selected sample of 290 preschool children. Child cognitive abilities were assessed by the WPPSI-R, whereas mothers completed the Yale Children's Inventory for the assessment of child externalizing behaviors. Maternal education, and maternal child-rearing style, as defined by scores on the Child Rearing Practices Report, was significantly related to perceived externalizing child behavior. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that for girls, low child IQ remained a significant predictor of perceived externalizing behavior when effects of maternal education and child-rearing style were controlled for (p < 0.01). Maternal child-rearing style made independent contributions to explaining variance in girls' and boys' behavior score. The results are discussed in terms of differential gender socialization practices and gender stereotypes.

Child Behavior Disorders↗

PubMed2006

Assays to determine allelic usage of gene expression in the placenta.

Mammalian placentas express a large number of so-called imprinted genes. Imprinting refers to mono-allelic or biased expression based on which parent contributed the allele. Many of these imprinted loci encode factors involved in growth and cell-cycle regulation, as well as maternal behavior. In general, paternally expressed genes tend to enhance growth, whereas maternally expressed genes inhibit growth. Methods are described for developing assays to test the allelic usage of a gene. The approaches described are best utilized within a system where multiple strains are available, and it is possible to perform reciprocal crosses. Only polymerase chain reaction-based methods are examined in any detail.

Alleles↗

PubMed2004

Habenular and interpeduncularis nuclei: shared components in multiple-function networks.

This paper reviews habenula (Hb) and interpeduncularis nucleus (IPN) literature from the perspective that the axial anatomy of Hb-IPN could be shared by numerous brain circuits that subserve diverse functions. The first section summarizes the major anatomical connections, showing that the axis is strategically positioned between key rostral structures and brainstem areas. Little is known about these connections as they relate to the heterogeneous Hb-IPN sub-nuclei. Insufficient understanding exists about ascending pathways in the fasiculus retroflexus, possible pineal gland connections with the Hb, serotonergic inputs, whether given pathways are excitatory or inhibitory, and interactions of neurotransmitter systems. Next reviewed are studies that implicate the Hb-IPN axis in a variety of brain functions and behaviors. These include nociception, learning and memory, motor activity, sexual and maternal behavior, stress, affective states (anxiety, depression, and reward phenomena), sleep, and eating and drinking behavior. I propose that these multiple functions arise because the Hb-IPN is a shared-component axis in the multiple circuits that subserve these different elements of behavior. More research is needed to test the possibility that the Hb-IPN provides a way for the brain to share circuitry, to explore the significance of the anatomical convergence of inputs to the lateral Hb, to map the circuitry of the subnuclei in Hb and IPN, to explore the interactions of the multiple neurotransmitter systems involved, to conduct studies in simpler animals, and to design experiments that will elucidate system properties of circuits that share the Hb-IPN axis.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Parenting and child behavioral adjustment in early childhood: a quantitative genetic approach to studying family processes.

The aim of this study was to examine environmental and gene-environment processes linking parenting (i.e., affect, control, responsiveness) and preschool children's behavioral adjustment difficulties (e.g., noncompliance, conduct problems) by using bivariate genetic analyses of parents' and observers' ratings. The sample included 120 identical and same-sex fraternal twin pairs (M age = 43 months). Data sources included in-home observations, interviews, and parents' reports. Observers' ratings of children's difficult behaviors included shared and nonshared environmental variance. In contrast, parents' ratings of children's conduct problems showed genetic and nonshared environmental variance. Observer-rated maternal behavior included shared and nonshared environmental variance, although maternal responsiveness also included child genetic variance. Parent self-reported negative and positive affect included shared and nonshared environment as well as child genetic variance. There was no evidence for gene-environment interaction or dominance. Higher levels of difficult behavior and conduct problems covaried with higher levels of maternal negative affect and control and lower levels of maternal positive affect and control. Shared environmental mediation of these correlations was found for observations, whereas genetic and nonshared environmental mediation was found for parents' ratings. In general, estimates of shared environmental variance and mediation were greatest for observational data, and estimates of child genetic variance and mediation were greatest for parent-rated data. The implications of this pattern of findings for genetic research on family processes are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2003

Developmental consequences of oxytocin.

This paper examines the developmental effects of the mammalian neuropeptide, oxytocin (OT). In adults, OT is the most abundant neuropeptide in the hypothalamus and serves integrative functions, coordinating behavioral and physiological processes. For example, OT has been implicated in parturition, lactation, maternal behavior and pair bond formation. In addition, OT is capable of moderating behavioral responses to various stressors as well as the reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Neonates may be exposed to hormones of maternal origin, possibly including peptides administered to the mother in the perinatal period to hasten or delay birth and in milk; however, whether peptide hormones from the mother influence the developing infant remains to be determined. In rodents, endogenous OT is first synthesized during the early postnatal period, although its functions at this time are not well known. Experiments in neonatal prairie voles have documented the capacity of OT and OT receptor antagonists to have immediate and lifelong consequences for social behaviors, including adult pair bonding and parental behaviors, as well as the reactivity of the HPA axis; most of these effects are sexually dimorphic. Possible mechanisms for such effects, including long-lasting changes in OT and vasopressin, are summarized.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Family variables in substance-misusing male adolescents: the importance of maternal disorder.

Selected family variables, especially maternal behaviors, were studied as predictors of alcohol and drug misuse in severely disturbed adolescent boys from largely father-absent homes. The families of 50 male youths (mean age 15.8 years) in a residential center for alcohol and substance misuse were compared with the families of a community control group (mean age 16.3 years). Within-subject group comparisons also were made. Family structure, interactive processes, maternal and paternal alcohol and substance use, and criminality were assessed through direct interview and/or self-report. The families of alcohol- and substance-misusing boys were markedly disadvantaged or impaired on numerous family structure, process, and substance-misusing behavioral variables in comparison with community controls. Within the alcohol- and substance-misusing group itself, family process variables, maternal alcohol symptoms, and maternal criminality differentiated boys with more vs. less severe drug-dependence symptoms. Maternal alcohol problems and criminality were more important than family process variables. Paternal alcohol or substance misuse or criminality did not differentiate proband symptom severity. We concluded that maternal alcohol symptoms and criminality differentiate severity of drug dependence in severely disturbed, substance-misusing adolescent males from largely father-absent homes. Maternal substance misuse should be evaluated carefully in adolescent substance abuse treatment settings.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Developmental effects of early immune stress on aggressive, socially reactive, and inhibited behaviors.

The origins of individual differences in social development are examined in relation to early stress (immune challenge) and social milieu (maternal behavior) in a genetic-developmental analysis using an animal model. Neonatal male mice (5 or 6 days of age) from two lines of mice selectively bred for high versus low levels of inter-male aggressive behavior received a standard immune challenge (i.p. injections of 0.05 mg/kg endotoxin or saline). Animals were reared by their line-specific biological dam or by a foster dam from a line bred without selection. Adult levels of social behaviors were assessed in a dyadic test (age 45-50 days). Mice from the high-aggressive line show more developmental sensitivity to immune challenge than mice from the low-aggressive line, and line differences persist regardless of the early maternal environment. As adults, endotoxin-treated mice from the high-aggressive line have lower levels of aggressive behavior, longer latency to attack, and higher rates of socially reactive and inhibited behaviors compared to saline controls. Developmental effects of endotoxin in the low-aggressive line are minimal: endotoxin increases socially reactive behaviors, compared to saline controls, but only for mice reared by their biological dams. Rearing by foster dams increases social exploration in the low-aggressive line. The findings raise novel questions regarding the openness of behavioral systems to effects of nonobvious but omnipresent features of the environment, such as antigenic load, how these effects are integrated to affect social development and psychopathology, and the nature of intrinsic factors that contribute to individual differences in sensitivity to early stressors.

Aggression↗

PubMed1990

Behavioral correlates of maternal depressive symptomatology in conduct-disorder children: II. Systemic effects involving fathers and siblings.

This study tested a systemic hypothesis of the relation between maternal depressive symptomatology and the behavior of conduct-disordered children (n = 47) toward their mothers, fathers, and siblings. Maternal symptomatology interacted with the children's behavior toward all family members. Children whose mothers were distressed tended to be more compliant and less aversive toward them than toward their fathers, and the opposite applied to children whose mothers were not distressed. Comparable results were obtained in comparisons of child interactions with mothers and siblings, although in the latter case the children's behaviors differed in absolute magnitude as a function of their interaction partner.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Predicting mothers' beliefs about preschool-aged children's social behavior: evidence for maternal attitudes moderating child effects.

Maternal beliefs about children's social behavior may be important contributors to socialization and development, but little is known about how such beliefs form. Transactional models suggest that children's characteristics may influence parents. At 2 years of age, the shy and aggressive behaviors of 65 toddlers (28 females) were observed during interactions with an unfamiliar peer; as well, mothers described the extent to which they advocated protective and authoritarian childrearing attitudes. These variables were used to predict mothers emotions, attributions, parenting goals, and socialization strategies in response to vignettes depicting aggressive and withdrawn child behaviors 2 years later. Most child effects were moderated by maternal attitudes or gender effects. Authoritarian mothers of aggressive toddlers were most likely to report high control and anger, to blame their children for aggression, and to focus on obtaining compliance rather than teaching skills to their children. Protective mothers reported that they would use warmth and involvement to comfort withdrawn children, especially their daughters.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Natural variations in maternal care are associated with estrogen receptor alpha expression and estrogen sensitivity in the medial preoptic area.

Lactating rats exhibit stable individual differences in pup licking/grooming (LG) over the first week postpartum. Such naturally occurring variations in maternal behavior are associated with differences in estrogen-inducible oxytocin receptors in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) of the hypothalamus. We compared levels of ER alpha and ER beta mRNA in the MPOA of lactating High or Low LG mothers as well as in their nonlactating, female offspring, which inherit the maternal phenotype of their mothers. Among lactating females, High LG females exhibited significantly elevated levels of ER alpha mRNA compared with Low LG females. Likewise, the adult, virgin female offspring of High LG mothers showed higher levels of ER alpha mRNA in the MPOA compared with those of Low LG mothers. There were no group differences in levels of ER beta mRNA. Differences in ER alpha protein expression in the MPOA were confirmed using Western blot analysis. To further characterize the effects of estrogen in the MPOA, cFos immunoreactivity was compared in ovariectomized, adult offspring of High and Low LG dams treated with estradiol or oil. Increased cFos activity in the anterior ventral nucleus of the MPOA was observed in estradiol-treated High LG, but not Low LG females. These findings suggest that natural variations in maternal care are associated with differences in ER alpha expression in the MPOA and that such differences are transmitted from the mother to her female offspring.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Vitamin B-6 status of Egyptian mothers: relation to infant behavior and maternal-infant interactions.

Functional consequences of marginal maternal vitamin B-6 status for behavior of the neonate and for mother-infant interactions at age 3-6 mo were assessed by a double-blind procedure. In 27 of 70 Egyptian village women studied, vitamin B-6 concentration of their milk was considered indicative of poor maternal vitamin B-6 nutriture. Neonatal behavior, quantified by the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, showed that consolability, appropriate build-up to a crying state, and response to aversive stimuli were significantly correlated with maternal vitamin B-6 nutriture. Naturalistic observational procedures, used twice monthly with infants aged 3-6 mo, indicated that mothers assessed as having marginal vitamin B-6 status were less responsive to their infants' vocalizations, showed less effective intervention to infant distress, and were more likely to use older siblings as care-givers than were mothers of better vitamin status. We conclude that vitamin B-6 was a factor influencing both the behavior of the mother and her infant.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Ultrasonic vocalizations by infant laboratory mice: a preliminary spectrographic characterization under different conditions.

During the first 2 to 3 weeks of life, isolated neonatal mice emit ultrasonic vocalizations, with various conditions such as hypothermia or olfactory or tactile stimulation eliciting this behavior. Although it is known that pup vocalizations stimulate prompt expression of maternal behavior, the communicative role of infant ultrasonic calls is still a matter of investigation. A fine-grained spectrographic analysis of ultrasonic calls emitted by pups exposed to different conditions was performed. Forty 8-day-old outbred CD-1 mice (Mus musculus) were isolated from their mothers and littermates and randomly exposed to one of the following conditions: (a) odor from the nest, (b) social isolation, (c) low temperature-isolation, (d) tactile stimulation, or (e) odor from a conspecific adult male. Upon consideration of the spectrogram typology and emission frequency interval, it appears that the conditions under which vocalizations are emitted influence the sound characteristics of call production.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1995

Oxytocin and female sexuality.

A search of the literature has been prepared to determine how oxytocin may affect sexual and reproductive in women. Many animal studies suggest that oxytocin induces a variety of reproductive behaviors, including grooming, sexual arousal, orgasm, gamete transport, nesting, birthing, and specific maternal behaviors such as breast-feeding and bonding between mother and infant. These actions are apparently facilitated by the 'priming' effect on certain cells by sex and steroid hormones - as the brief case report would also suggest. However, no adequate double-blind trial has confirmed the observations from this report in women. Only animal studies have been performed, albeit over a wide range of species. A variety of other causes and effects of sexual interest and arousal relating to oxytocin are considered, including some of those in males. More research is needed to clarify the role of oxytocin in human reproductive behaviors, including its potential 'aphrodisiac' or prosexual effect in women in the presence of the sex-steroid hormones.

Female↗

PubMed2006

A comparison of motor behaviors, interaction, and playfulness during mother-child and father-child play with children with motor delay.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare motor behavior, parent-child interactions, and child's playfulness during mother-child and father-child play with children with motor delay. Play sessions of 20 children (ages 7 to 36 months) and their parents were videotaped in the families' homes. Interval recording was used to measure the children's motor behaviors, the parents' handling/positioning, and the children's position of play. The Maternal Behavior Rating Scale and the Test of Playfulness were used to measure the parents' interactive behaviors and children's playfulness, respectively. Mean differences were analyzed using paired t-tests. Children demonstrated similar occurrence of motor behaviors and degree of playfulness when playing with their mothers and their fathers. Mothers and fathers had similar occurrence of carrying their children, using adaptive positioning equipment, and manually positioning their children. Fathers held their children on their lap for a greater proportion of the play intervals compared with mothers. Mothers were more responsive than fathers during the play sessions but both parents demonstrated similar achievement orientation, affect/animation, and directiveness. Children's playfulness was related to their developmental abilities and to parents' responsiveness. Therapists are encouraged to consider the interactive styles of both parents, capitalize on the unique strengths of each parent and child, and partner with parents to promote interactions with their children and children's playfulness.

Chi-Square Distribution↗

PubMed1978

Early cognitive development and its relation to maternal physiologic and behavioral responsiveness.

Data are presented which support the hypothesis that infant cognitive development is a function of maternal responsiveness to infant cues. 22 mothers whose physiologic responses to infant signals had been recorded at an earlier date participated in the follow-up study reported here. Mother-infant dyads were videotaped during a feeding session when the infant was 9 months of age. Behavioral data collected were the mother's responses to her infant's facial orientation. The statistic developed to index maternal sensitivity was the rate of maternal responding during infant gaze/the rate of responding during infant looking away. Development of the object concept was assessed at 15 months using the Uzgiris and Hunt scale. The data indicated that the development of the concept of the object is positively related to maternal behavioral sensitivity and that mothers who were behaviorally sensitive to infant cues earlier had exhibited physiologic responses to infant signals.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

A review of the methods of studies on infant ultrasound production and maternal retrieval in small rodents.

Ultrasonic vocalizations or calls produced by young rodents have been associated with aspects of maternal behavior, in particular retrieving. We reviewed the methods of study used by investigators on each topic, focusing on intrinsic or subject variables and extrinsic or experimental variables. Intrinsic variables included the species studied, genotypes employed, number and sex composition of the litters, and the ages of mothers and pups. Extrinsic variables for studies on ultrasonic calling included: eliciting stimuli, test surroundings, and the length of observation. Extrinsic variables in studies of maternal retrieval included the testing procedure and the length of observation. The methods used in studies within each topic vary greatly. In an effort to facilitate progress in the areas, especially with respect to isolating individual genes with a contribution to ultrasonic call production or studying the effects of pharmaceutical agents on either behavior, we propose some standardization of nomenclature and/or procedure in four areas: (1) the stimuli or situations used to elicit ultrasonic calls, (2) the length of observation in ultrasonic call studies, (3) the number of pups per litter and the sex composition of litters in both ultrasonic call and maternal retrieval studies and finally, (4) the apparatus or testing situation used in studies of pup retrieval.

Animals↗