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PubMed1991

Response of (n-3) and (n-6) fatty acids in piglet brain, liver and plasma to increasing, but low, fish oil supplementation of formula.

Addition of fish oils to infant formula provides (n-3) long-chain polyenoic fatty acids (LCP), specifically 22:6(n-3), to infants fed formula rather than human milk. Most fish oils, however, contain high levels of 20:5(n-3) and low (n-6) LCP. These studies determined the brain total, synaptic plasma membrane phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine, and plasma and liver phospholipid fatty acids of piglets fed from birth to 15 d with formula containing (percent fatty acids) 34% 18:2(n-6), 0.8% 18:3(n-3) and 0, 2 or 6 g/L menhaden oil, or sow milk. The brain 22:6(n-3) was higher and 22:4(n-6) lower in piglets fed 6 g/L menhaden oil compared with sow milk. Brain levels of 20:5(n-3) did not increase, or levels of 20:4(n-6) decrease, with increasing dietary (n-3) LCP. A diet concentration-dependent increase in 20:5(n-3) and decrease in 20:4(n-6) (P less than 0.0001) in liver phospholipid showed no evidence of maximum saturation or depletion, respectively, over the range of (n-3) LCP intake studied. The fish oil supplementation was effective in supplying 22:6(n-3) to the developing brain. The accompanying increase in 20:5(n-3) and decrease in 20:4(n-6), important eicosanoid precursors, in plasma and liver phospholipid show the need for caution in the use of fish oils low in (n-6) LCP as a source of (n-3) LCP for infant formula.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Urinary methylmalonic acid excretion in infants fed formula or human milk.

Serum vitamin B-12 and urinary methylmalonic acid (MMA) concentrations were determined in 62 healthy infants aged 1-6 mo. Urinary MMA was inversely correlated with serum vitamin B-12 concentrations (r = -0.550, p less than 0.001); serum vitamin B-12 was higher (p less than 0.001) and urinary MMA concentrations were lower (p less than 0.001) in formula-fed infants than in infants fed human milk (from the breast). Human-milk-fed infants who had received supplemental formula had higher serum vitamin B-12 concentrations than did infants exclusively fed human milk. It is not clear whether the serum vitamin B-12 and urinary MMA concentrations in infants fed human milk reflect biochemical deficiency of vitamin B-12, and the clinical significance of these findings needs to be investigated.

Female↗
PubMed1987

Growth of premature infants fed formulas with 10%, 30%, or 50% medium-chain triglycerides.

Questions regarding fat deposition and hormonal control of lipogenesis in infants fed formulas containing medium-chain triglycerides have been raised by studies in animals. To compare growth, clinical observations, and laboratory measures of infants fed the same basic isocaloric formulas with 10%, 30%, or 50% of the total fat as medium-chain triglycerides, we studied longitudinally for the first four weeks of life 22 infants who weighed 1000 to 1750 g. We found no differences in weight or skin-fold thickness between the groups. There were no clinical characteristics to distinguish one group from another. Two-hour postprandial levels of insulin and glucagon showed no differences one week to ten days after the start of the formula diet. The skin-fold thickness of all infants studied continued to increase after birth, regardless of weight loss. The increase in skin-fold thickness was comparable with the increase expected in the fetus in utero, but not significantly greater. The weight curve was parallel to the fetal weight curve but was lower, due to the first-week loss that possibly reflected a loss of body water, as suggested by the dynamic skin-fold thickness curve.

Humans↗
PubMed2005

The effect of alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid on the growth and development of formula-fed infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effect of modifying 18-carbon PUFA [18-C PUFA: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6)] in the diets of term and preterm infants on DHA (22:6n-3) status, growth, and developmental outcomes. Only randomized controlled trials (RCT) involving formula-fed term and preterm infants, in which the 18-C PUFA composition of the formula was changed and growth or developmental outcomes were measured, were included. Differences were presented as control (standard formula) and treatment (18-C PUFA-supplemented formula). Primary analyses for term infants were 4 and 12 mon and for preterm infants 37-42 and 57 wk postmenstrual age. Five RCT involving term infants and three RCT involving preterm infants were included in the systematic review. Infants fed ALA-supplemented formula had significantly higher plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid DHA levels than control infants. There was no effect of ALA supplementation on the growth of preterm infants. In term infants, ALA supplementation was associated with increased weight and length at 12 mon, which was at least 4 mon after the end of dietary intervention. Developmental indices of term infants did not differ between groups. There was a transient improvement in the retinal function of preterm infants fed ALA-supplemented diets compared with controls. The findings suggest that ALA-supplemented diets improve the DHA status of infants. Further studies are needed to provide convincing evidence regarding the effects of ALA supplementation of formula on infant growth and development.

Body Size↗
PubMed2004

Energy intake, metabolic balance and growth in preterm infants fed formulas with different nonprotein energy supplements.

OBJECTIVE: To study metabolic and energy balances, growth and composition of increased body mass in healthy preterm infants fed control formula or control formula with three different nonprotein energy supplements. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Growing preterm infants (birth weight < 1,500 g and gestational age < 31 weeks) were fed standard preterm formula (control group) or the same formula enriched with three different nonprotein energy supplements. An energy supplement of 23 kcal/kg/day was achieved by adding medium-chain triglyceride and dextrinomaltose in three different caloric ratios: 33:66 in group A, 66:33 in group B, and 85:15 in group C. Energy balance was determined by open-circuit continuous (5-6 hours) measurements of energy expenditure, with simultaneous measurement of 24-hour urinary nitrogen excretion. Metabolic balance was determined by measurements of energy intake, energy oxidation, and energy output in urine and stool. The composition of body mass accretion was determined as the accretion of fat and protein in the total weight gain. RESULTS: The fat accretion (4.9, 5.9, 6.2, and 3.8 g/kg/day in groups A, B, C and D, respectively) correlated directly with fat intake. Infants receiving standard energy intake had a fat percentage of weight gain significantly lower (28%) than that of the high-energy intake groups (31%, 40%, and 38% in groups A, B, and C, respectively). This difference corresponded to the results obtained from skinfold thickness measurements. CONCLUSIONS: Excess nonprotein energy is stored as fat regardless of its source (fat or carbohydrate). High caloric and medium-chain triglyceride intake in otherwise healthy growing preterm infants does not promote nitrogen retention.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1995

Efficacy and safety of hydrolyzed cow milk and amino acid-derived formulas in infants with cow milk allergy.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the antigenicity, nutritional adequacy, and growth-promoting efficacy of protein hydrolysate or amino acid-derived formulas in infants with cow milk allergy. STUDY DESIGN: Several protein hydrolysate or amino acid-derived formulas were graded for beta-lactoglobulin content and skin reactivity in 74 atopic children with cow milk allergy proved by a double-blind, placebo-controlled challenge. A randomized, prospective follow-up study of 9 months included 22 infants with a mean age of 6 months (95% confidence interval, 4 to 7), who were fed an extensively hydrolyzed whey formula (group We), and 23 infants with a mean age of 17 (95% confidence interval, 4 to 7) months, who were given an amino acid-derived formula (group AA). RESULTS: Both formulas were clinically and biochemically tolerated. The mean concentration of essential amino acids in plasma was lower in group We but higher in group AA compared with values for breast-fed control infants (p = 0.001). There was a different trend between the groups in weight (p = 0.09) and length (p = 0.006). Growth was promoted in group AA during the follow-up; it was constant during the first months, followed by a gradual decline in rate in group We. In both groups, atopic eczema improved significantly and progressively, and a downward trend was found in serum total and milk-specific IgE concentrations, proving the efficacy of both formulas. CONCLUSIONS: Extensively hydrolyzed formulas are safe and effective for most infants; an amino acid-derived formula may be preferable for infants with multiple food allergies, especially for the maintenance of normal growth.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1997

Effect of serum from breast- or formula-fed infants on polymorphonuclear leukocyte function.

The aim of the present study was to determine the influence of serum from formula and breast-fed infants on neutrophil function (as measured by the attachment and phagocytosis of Candida albicans) as well as the chemoattractant activity of the serum. The results indicate that: (a) serum from breast-fed infants induces a greater chemoattractant activity in neutrophils than serum from 3-month-old formula-fed infants; (b) the highest values of the attachment capacity were obtained after incubation of neutrophils with serum from 1-month-old breast-fed infants; and (c) serum from breast-fed infants induces a greater phagocytic capacity against C. albicans in neutrophils than serum from formula-fed infants.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Cerebral cortex docosahexaenoic acid is lower in formula-fed than in breast-fed infants.

Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) is abundant in the brain and retina and may be important for optimal nervous system development. Although current infant formulas available in the United States do not contain this fatty acid, it is found in human milk. In a recent study, the concentration of 22:6n-3 in cerebral cortex phospholipids was lower in full-term formula-fed infants than in infants who were breast-fed.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed1983

Hyperbilirubinemia in breast-versus formula-fed infants in the first six weeks of life: relationship to weight gain.

Bilirubin determinations were obtained at weekly intervals from 1 to 6 weeks of age in 27 breast-fed and 12 formula-fed term, average size infants. Mean bilirubin levels were significantly higher in breast-fed infants at each age studied. The highest mean bilirubin level in each group was present at 1 week of age, 10.6 (+/- SD 4.6) mg/dl in breast-fed and 4.7 (+/- SD 3.0) mg/dl in formula-fed infants. Thereafter, values gradually fell in both groups. Mean birthweight was not different between the two groups; however, breast-fed infants lost significantly more weight (4.8%) by the time of discharge than formula-fed infants (2.2%). Breast-fed infants remained significantly lighter in weight at 6 weeks of age. Analysis of variance and covariance revealed no significant correlation between body weight, weight change in grams or percent weight change, and bilirubin levels in either group. These data indicate that mean bilirubin levels are significantly higher in breast-fed infants compared with formula-fed infants from 1 to 6 weeks of age. Breast-fed infants also have a significantly greater weight loss during the first four days of life and remain lighter at 6 weeks of age; however, there is no relationship of weight loss to bilirubin levels.

Bilirubin↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Developmental effects and health aspects of soy protein isolate, casein, and whey in male and female rats.

Dietary factors other than the traditional nutrients are found in the so-called functional foods. They are becoming increasingly recognized as potentially important for maintaining good health. Soybeans are rich in such factors thought to help prevent certain chronic diseases. Soy protein isolate (SPI) is one of the three major proteins used in infant formulas sold in the United States, with casein (CAS) and whey (WPH) proteins being the others. We have been studying the health effects of these proteins. Safety concerns have developed over the consumption of soy-based infant formula, partly because of the high circulating levels of the total isoflavones (phytoestrogens) during "critical periods of infant development." There is a paucity of data on developmental, physiological, neurophysiological, behavioral, metabolic, or molecular effects of soy phytochemicals in humans, especially during pregnancy and infancy. We have studied the effects of CAS, SPI, and WPH in short-term, long-term, and multigenerational studies in rats. Aside from minor differences in body weight gain profiles, CAS-, SPI- or WPH-fed rats did not differ in development, organ weights, in vitro hepatic metabolism of testosterone (T), or reproductive performance. However, some endocrine-related functions differed between rats fed these proteins. We found that SPI accelerated puberty in female rats (p < .05) and WPH delayed puberty in males and females, as compared with CAS (p < .05). Gender differences were also found in gonadectomy-induced steroid responses. Male rats had normal serum T levels, but female rats fed SPI had reduced serum 17beta-estradiol concentrations and a blunted 17beta-estradiol response to ovariectomy, as compared to rats fed CAS or WHP (p < .05). Female rats fed SPI or WHP or treated with genistein had reduced incidence of chemically induced mammary cancers (p < .05) compared to CAS controls, with WHP reducing tumor incidence by as much as 50%, findings that replicate previous results from our laboratory. Together, these results suggest gender-specific differences in development and certain endocrine responses among rats fed diets composed of a single protein source such as those used in infant formulas. Whether similar developmental effects occur in human infants is unknown, but unlikely because (1) most infants do not consume such diets throughout life as these rats did, and (2) no such effects have been reported in millions of American infants fed infant formula containing these proteins. The long-term health consequence implications of early diet exposure to SPI and WPH, such as reduced breast cancer incidence, are likely to be very positive.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Effect of dietary fat on cardiovascular risk factors in infancy.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of feeding regimens of varying fat composition on dietary intake and serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in older infants. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: One hundred four healthy infants aged 4 to 6 months were enrolled from private pediatric practices or public health clinics and were randomly assigned to one of four feeding groups until 12 months of age. INTERVENTIONS: Infants received whole cow milk or a standard infant formula (48% to 49% of energy as fat from butterfat or a soy-coconut oil blend, respectively) or one of two nearly identical investigational lower fat follow-up formulas (36% kcal from a fat blend of palm olein, corn, and safflower oils) as their primary food source in addition to table foods. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Nutrient intakes during the study period were characterized qualitatively and quantitatively. Serum lipids, lipoprotein concentrations, and anthropometrics were determined at baseline and at 12 months of age (study completion). RESULTS: Total energy intake was equivalent among feeding groups. Infants fed cow milk had higher mean daily intakes of total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and cholesterol. Linoleic acid intake by infants fed cow milk, including that from table foods, was insufficient to meet current recommendations. Mean serum total cholesterol was significantly higher in the infants fed cow milk at age 12 months, whereas mean low density lipoprotein and apolipoprotein B were lower in the infants fed the follow-up formulas. Infants consuming the infant formula or whole cow milk demonstrated greater increases in mean serum total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein B by 12 months of age compared with infants ingesting follow-up formula. Ponderal, linear, and head circumference growth was equivalent among feeding groups. CONCLUSIONS: (1) Older infants fed lower fat formula have adequate total energy intake and normal growth. (2) The fat composition of the diets fed to the infants influenced serum lipid and lipoprotein profiles. (3) The fat composition of cow milk is inferior compared with commercial formulas. (4) The optimal fat blend for older infants including the consequences of the standard practice of adding high percentage of coconut oil to infant formulas should be defined further.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Short-term growth and substrate use in very-low-birth-weight infants fed formulas with different energy contents.

BACKGROUND: Currently available preterm formulas with energy contents of 3350 kJ (800 kcal)/L promote weight and length gain at rates at or above intrauterine growth rates but disproportionately increase total body fat. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine whether fat accretion in formula-fed, very-low-birth-weight (VLBW) infants could be decreased and net protein gain maintained by reducing energy intakes from 502 kJ (80 kcal)*kg(-)(1)*d(-)(1) [normal-energy (NE) formula] to 419 kJ (100 kcal)*kg(-)(1)*d(-)(1) [low-energy (LE) formula] while providing similar protein intakes (3.3 g*kg(-)(1)*d(-)(1)). DESIGN: The study was a randomized, controlled trial enrolling 20 appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) and 16 small-for-gestational-age (SGA) VLBW infants (mean birth weight: 1.1 kg; mean gestational age: 31 wk); energy expenditure and nutrient balance were measured at 4 wk of age and anthropometric measurements were made when infants weighed 2 kg. RESULTS: The percentage of fat in newly formed tissue was significantly lower in AGA infants fed the LE formula (n = 9) than in those fed the NE formula (n = 10) (9% compared with 23%; analysis of variance, P = 0.001). Energy expenditure was higher in AGA infants fed the NE formula than in those fed the LE formula. Skinfold thickness was markedly lower in AGA infants fed the LE formula than in those fed the NE formula, resulting in a lower estimated percentage body fat (8.0 +/- 1.9% and 10.8 +/- 3.5%, respectively; P < 0.05). Three of 6 SGA infants fed the LE formula were excluded during the study because of poor weight gain. CONCLUSIONS: Body composition can easily be altered by changing the energy intakes of formula-fed VLBW infants. Energy intakes in these infants should be >419 kJ (100 kcal)*kg(-)(1)*d(-)(1).

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2006

Building bones in babies: can and should we exceed the human milk-fed infant's rate of bone calcium accretion?

Increasing calcium absorption and bone calcium accretion to levels above those achieved by human milk-fed, full-term infants is possible with infant formulas. However, no data support such a goal or suggest that it is beneficial to short- or long-term bone health. Small differences in the bioavailability of calcium between infant formulas are unlikely to have long-term consequences. Long-term studies of the effects of infant feeding type on ultimate bone mass are needed. For now, the vitamin-replete breast-fed infant's rate of calcium accretion during the first year of life should be the standard targeted for infant formulas.

Biological Availability↗
PubMed2006

Determination of bovine lactoferrin in lactoferrin-supplemented dairy products and raw milk by an automated latex assay.

Latex immune agglutination method with a multipurpose auto-analyser (the automated latex assay) was validated for determination of bovine lactoferrin (BLF) in various dairy products. Reproducibility-within-laboratory (intermediate precision) due to day for infant formula, UHT milk and yogurt supplemented with BLF at 50 mg/100 g for infant formula and UHT milk, and at 100 mg/100 g for yogurt were 1.62 to 3.10 mg/100 g. Reproducibility-within-laboratory due to analysis (morning, noon, and evening) for raw milk was 1.59 mg/100 g. Trueness, accuracy in determining known amounts added for BLF-supplemented dairy products was -4.7 to -2.0 mg/100 g. BLF concentration in raw milks was 20.3 to 21.8 mg/100 g. Although interference by the matrixes took place in infant formula and raw milk, BLF assays were accurately carried out by 2000-fold dilution or standard-addition method. Automated latex assay for BLF is simple, rapid, precise and accurate enough for a routine method in various dairy products containing BLF.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Soy-polysaccharide-supplemented soy formula enhances mucosal disaccharidase levels following massive small intestinal resection in rats.

BACKGROUND: Addition of soy polysaccharide to infant formulas has previously been shown to reduce the duration of diarrhea in infants with acute gastroenteritis. Fiber is metabolized to short-chain fatty acids that have been shown to be beneficial in inducing adaptation in the small bowel. We therefore hypothesize that a soy-polysaccharide-supplemented infant formula may be potentially advantageous in the treatment of patients with short bowel syndrome and could have a trophic effect on the remaining small intestine. METHODS: Male Spraque-Dawley rats weighing 250 g were divided into two groups. One group received Isomil, a standard infant soy formula. The second group received Isomil supplemented with fiber, Isomil DF. Half the animals in each dietary group were subjected to 80% jejunoileal resection and the reminder were sham operated. Animals were pair-fed one of two diets for 14 days. At the conclusion of the 14-day period, mucosal weight and sucrase and lactase levels in the remaining duodenum and ileum were determined. RESULTS: Resected animals fed fiber-supplemented formulas had significantly higher sucrase and lactase levels in the proximal bowel. Comparable results were not observed in the sham-operated animals. CONCLUSIONS: The addition of soy polysaccharide to infant formulas fed to children with short bowel syndrome might potentially improve small intestinal functional adaptation as well as positively affecting stool consistency.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Longitudinal zinc balances in breast-fed and formula-fed infants.

Longitudinal zinc (Zn) balance studies were performed under domestic conditions in term breast-fed (n = 10), term formula-fed (n = 5; Zn concentration in the formula: 4 mg/l) and preterm formula-fed (n = 3) infants during the first 17 weeks of life. Samples of milk, urine and feces were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. The median daily Zn intake in breast-fed infants decreased from 0.592 (0.457-0.829) mg Zn/kg body weight to 0.151 (0.095-0.304) mg Zn/kg body weight in the first 17 weeks of life; comparable values for bottle-fed term infants were 0.58 (0.511-0.701) and 0.674 (0.529-0.731) mg Zn/kg body weight. The median percent retention of Zn intake was 27 (-60 to 81.4)% in breast-fed infants and 21.5 (-42 to 64)% in formula-fed infants. In view of the urinary and fecal Zn losses measured, a daily intake of 0.3-0.5 mg Zn/kg body weight is considered to be sufficient to ensure a Zn retention equivalent to breast-fed infants. This requires a Zn concentration of 2-3 mg/l of Zn depending on milk volume intake.

Bottle Feeding↗
PubMed1992

Growth of breast-fed and formula-fed infants from 0 to 18 months: the DARLING Study.

Anthropometric data were collected monthly from birth to 18 months as part of the Davis Area Research on Lactation, Infant Nutrition and Growth study, which followed infants who were either breast-fed or formula-fed during the first 12 months. The two cohorts were matched for parental socioeconomic status, education, ethnic group, and anthropometric characteristics and for infant sex and birth weight, and neither group was given solid foods before 4 months. While mean weight of formula-fed infants remained at or above the National Center for Health Statistics median throughout the first 18 months, mean weight of breast-fed infants dropped below the median beginning at 6 to 8 months and was significantly lower than that of the formula-fed group between 6 and 18 months. In contrast, length and head circumference values were similar between groups. Weight-for-length z scores were significantly different between 4 and 18 months, suggesting that breast-fed infants were leaner. The groups had similar weight gain during the first 3 months, but breast-fed infants gained less rapidly during the remainder of the first year: cumulative weight gain in the first 12 months was 0.65 kg less in the breast-fed group. Length gain was similar between groups. These results indicate that weight patterns of breast-fed infants, even in a population of high socioeconomic status, differ from current reference data and from those of formula-fed infants. Thus, new growth charts based on breast-fed infants are needed.

Anthropometry↗