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PubMed1993

[Spontaneous pregnancy, independent of treatment, in sterile couples].

The spontaneous pregnancy independent of treatment in sterility is a frequently observed event in this group of couples. The spontaneous pregnancy appears up to 61% of women with antecedents of sterility and in selected populations of healthy women; a third of them experience, once in their lives a subfertility episode. The characterization of this event in a population with sterility, will help to define the capacity of different diagnostic methods, as well as therapeutic methods in terms of efficacy. The objective of this study was to identify women with diagnosis of sterility and spontaneous pregnancy; to describe the main characteristics: clinical, of laboratory, of gabinet, and to discuss some implications of biological variability useful in the interpretation of these tests. One hundred and eleven patients with sterility and spontaneous pregnancy, in a descriptive and retrospective design, were analyzed. Operational definitions for the main factors related with sterility, were used, as tuboperitoneal, endocrine-ovarian, cervico-vaginal and masculine. The pregnant patients related to any type of treatment, were excluded. Two study groups were established: Group I (n-46) and Group II (n = 65) with primary sterility and secondary sterility, respectively. Average age for both groups was similar (mean = 29 years old). The time of sterility was 46.52 and 43.52 months, for Group I and II, respectively. The time of pregnancy from the point zero (admission), was, in average 6.21 and 4.9 months for Group I and II. The following factors were identified as abnormal: endocrine-ovarian 28.60 by menstrual pattern, progesterone and endometrial biopsy: tuboperitoneal 12.67% by hysterosalpingography and laparoscopy; masculine 12.67 by direct spermatobioscopy.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Biopsy↗

PubMed1998

Painful venous ulcers: themes and stories about their impact on quality of life.

The purpose of this dissertation research was to describe, to understand and to interpret the meaning of the experience of living with painful venous ulcers. Heideggerian hermeneutic phenomenology, a descriptive, phenomenological approach, was the design used for this study. Fourteen people with active painful venous ulcers at the time of initial interview were engaged in conversation. The semi-structured interviews were audiotaped, transcribed and analyzed using Martin Qualitative Analysis Software (version 2.0). Four of the eight most compelling themes that relate to quality of life are reviewed here: feeling frustrated; interfering with the job; making significant life changes; and finding satisfaction in new activities. Increased sensitivity to and understanding of the impact of painful venous ulcers on QOL may lead to more effective intervention strategies and improved outcomes for these patients.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Reliability and reproducibility of radiographic interpretation of proximal humeral fracture pathoanatomy.

Recent studies have demonstrated inconsistencies in the use of certain images for classifying proximal humerus fractures. Our purpose was to determine whether three-dimensional computed tomography or the level of expertise of the observers would improve the reliability and reproducibility of identifying specific anatomic fragments in proximal humerus fractures. Two groups of observers, nonexperts and experts in shoulder surgery, were asked to review the radiographs and three-dimensional computed tomography scans of 12 patients with proximal humerus fractures. Observers were asked to identify displaced fracture fragments, dislocation, and articular surface fractures. Both groups of observers displayed suboptimal reliability for the identification of displaced fracture fragments. The addition of three-dimensional computed tomography scans did not improve the reliability or reproducibility. Poor agreement for the purpose of classification seems to occur at the most fundamental level, the pathoanatomic description of the fracture. Inconsistencies may have been due to imprecise identification and measurement of individual fracture fragments, differing interpretations of the pathoanatomy, or both.

Humans↗

PubMed2003

3-D imaging with MDCT.

Without doubt, the greatest challenge of multidetector-row CT is dealing with 'data explosion'. For our carotid/intracranial CT angiograms, we routinely have 375 images to review (300 mm coverage reconstructed every 0.8 mm); for aortic studies we have 450-500 images ( approximately 600 mm coverage reconstructed every 1.3 mm); and for a study of the lower extremity inflow and run-off, we may generate 900-1000 transverse reconstructions. While we could reconstruct fewer images for these data, experience with single-detector row CT scanners indicates that longitudinal resolution and disease detection is improved when at least 50% overlap of cross-sections is generated [Radiology 200 (1996) 312]. If we are to optimize our clinical protocols and take full advantage of these CT scanners, we will need to change the way that we interpret, transfer, and store CT data. Film is no longer a viable option. Workstation based review of transverse reconstructions for interpretation is a necessity, but the workstations must improve to provide efficient access to these data, and we must have a way of providing our clinicians with images that can be transported to clinics and the operating room. Alternative visualization and analysis using volumetric tools, including 3-D visualization must evolve from luxury to necessity. We cannot rest on historical precedent to interpret these near isotropically sampled volumetric data using transverse reconstructions alone [Radiology 173 (1989) 527]. Although the tools for volumetric analysis on 3-D workstations have evolved over recent years, they have probably not yet evolved to a level that routine interpretation can be performed as efficiently and accurately as transverse section review. Both hardware and software developments must occur. While current computer workstations and visualization software are certainly adequate for assessing these MDCT data volumetrically, the process is very time consuming. What follows are a description of current workstation capabilities and a brief discussion of where development needs to go to facilitate the complete integration of volumetric analysis into the interpretive process of CT data.

Humans↗

PubMed2004

Mechanistic and thermodynamic interpretations of zinc sorption onto ferrihydrite.

Elucidating the reaction mechanisms and estimating the associated transport and thermodynamic parameters are important for an accurate description of the fate of toxic metal pollutants, such as Zn(II), in soils and aquatic ecosystems rich in iron oxides. Consequently, sorption of Zn(II) ions onto ferrihydrite was investigated with macroscopic and spectroscopic studies as a function of pH (4.0-8.0), ionic strength (10(-3)-10(-1) M NaNO(3)), aqueous Zn(II) concentration (10(-8)-10(-2) M), and temperature (4-25 degrees C). Present findings suggest that, for a given set of pH and temperature conditions, Zn sorption onto ferrihydrite can best be described by one average reaction mechanism below the saturation limits. Thermodynamic analyses reveal that the Zn(II) ions sorb onto the ferrihydrite surfaces via strong endothermic chemical reactions. Consistently, X-ray absorption spectroscopic (XAS) analyses confirm that, at pH < 6.5, for all Zn loadings, Zn(II) ions form corner-sharing, mononuclear, bidentate inner-sphere complexes with ferrihydrite, where R(Zn-O) approximately 1.97 A and R(Zn-Fe) approximately 3.48 A. For pH >/=6.5, similar sorption complexes were observed at lower sorption densities. Then again, for pH >/=6.5 and at higher sorption densities, Zn(II) ions may begin to form zinc-hydroxide-like polynuclear sorption complexes on the surfaces of the ferrihydrite, where R(Zn-Zn) approximately 3.53 A. Surprisingly, small changes in temperature had a significant impact on the affinity of zinc for the ferrihydrite surface; equilibrium sorption capacity decreased by 3-4 orders of magnitude as temperature fell from 25 to 4 degrees C for all pH. Zinc sorption onto ferrihydrite, therefore, is governed by pH as well as by temperature and sorbate/sorbent ratio.

Journal Article↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Personal computer teleradiology interhospital image transmission of neonatal radiographs to facilitate tertiary neonatology telephone consultation and patient transfer.

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to study the ability of personal computer teleradiology (PCT) to improve the quality of communication between physicians during newborn infant transfers and consultations. STUDY DESIGN: In the first part of the study 36 radiographs of neonatal intensive care unit patients were transmitted by PCT. The pediatrician reviewed the original films and three neonatologists reviewed the PCT images. Their interpretations were scored by use of criteria established by a neutral reader. In the second part chest x-ray films (CXR) of 31 newborns weighing > 2000 gm with respiratory distress were transmitted by PCT. A pediatrician and three neonatologists participated in an exercise to simulate a telephone neonatology consultation. Patient severity assessments as measured by assignments to receive intermediate or intensive care were compared before and after neonatologists viewed the PCT image of the CXR. RESULTS: In part 1 of the study neonatologists correctly identified 98%, 91%, and 98% of the x-ray interpretation scoring items, whereas at best the pediatrician identified 82% of the scoring items (p = 0.002). In part 2 neonatologists correctly assigned patient care levels an average of 73% after reviewing a standard clinical profile and a written description of the infant's CXR. After reviewing a PCT image of the infant's CXR, patient care level assignments were correctly assigned an average of 67%. The interpretation of the PCT CXR image was consistent with the radiologic report of record in 90 of 93 interpretations (31 cases read by three neonatologists). CONCLUSIONS: PCT represents an inexpensive means to accurately send a radiographic image over the phone as part of a telephone consultation. Neonatologists were able to interpret teleradiology images more accurately than a pediatrician reviewing the original film. Although this did not result in an improvement in the neonatologists' ability to determine patient severity on the basis of the model used in part 2, their identification of serious radiographic findings missed by the pediatrician can only suggest that teleradiology may be beneficial in certain instances. Although verbal communication can often suffice in a telephone consultation or transfer, there may be specific instances when visualizing a radiographic image such as an x-ray film or computed tomographic scan can provide important information that cannot be optimally described verbally. Rural hospitals can form interhospital image transmission links with tertiary center resources.

Humans↗

PubMed2004

Guidelines for the descriptive presentation and statistical analysis of contact allergy data.

The present guidelines aim to support clinical researchers in adequately presenting data on contact allergy, and to use statistical tests appropriate for their data. A description of the mode of selection of patients, and of their relevant demographic details, is an essential prerequisite for the correct interpretation of study results. Proportions and rates, if regarded as estimate of these parameters of a target populations, should normally be supplemented with confidence intervals to address precision. Concordance, i.e., agreement between two ratings in a dependent sample, must be quantified with a chance-corrected measure such as Cohen's kappa coefficient. If the diagnostic quality of an outcome is being assessed, standard measures like sensitivity and specificity, as well as the prevalence-dependent positive and negative predictive values should be calculated. Often, contact allergy to a certain substance depends on several factors. In this situation, depending on the research question, techniques like stratification, standardization or multifactorial analysis should be employed. With increasing complexity of statistical description and analysis, consulting with a biostatistician is often mandatory.

Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic↗

PubMed2005

Telling it in time: interpreting consistency and change in the life stories of Holocaust survivors.

In this article, I inquire into the life of a single Holocaust survivor in order to give a "thick description" of the dynamics of talking about the past over time. David K., born in 1928 in Gheorgheni Hungary, was deported to Auschwitz in 1944, where he spent one month before entering slave labor camps in Mühldorf and Mittergars. My reading of David's life is based upon two interviews, the first from 1982 (at age 54) and the second from 1995 (at age 67). I employ a method of structural interpretation, "narrative mapping," which is based upon the work of Labov and Waletzky (1967), in order to visualize the amount of overall consistency between the two interviews. I also carefully study individual narratives that are repeated over time. My reading of David's interviews suggests strong consistency along with significant changes. There is enormous consistency in the structure and content of narratives but differences in the point or evaluations of narratives. I also argue that David's later interview is more fully developed; David's later interview contains several new narratives and integrates historical insights into his account of the past. I discuss the merits of two explanations for this change, culture and time in development. Finally, I suggest possible strategies for researchers interested in working with the vast archives of survivor interviews.

Aging↗

PubMed1985

Neural modeling and model identification.

The complexity of the nervous system poses challenging experimental and theoretical problems to the investigator. While experimental studies have provided a broad understanding of the physiological and anatomical role of neural elements, a comprehensive description of how the nervous system acquires and processes information is still lacking. Neural modeling addresses itself to the quantitative interpretation of neurophysiological experiments, to the assimilation of diverse experimental results into unified theories, and to the investigation of mechanisms of information-processing units, codes, and networks and their relation to capabilities of living systems. This review will emphasize neural models which can be tested by physiological or psychophysical experiments and will include the identification of model parameters based on experimental measurements. An overview of neural firing models, neural interaction models, neural variability and coding, design of input-output experiments for model identification, and description of small network interactions through multiunit and gross potential recording will be included.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1994

Pattern interpretation by cellular automata (PICA)--evaluation of tumour cell adhesion in human melanomas.

In routine pathology, the evaluation of the pattern of a tumour at scanning magnification often reveals diagnostic and prognostic features indicating that the biological properties of the tumour cells are related to the morphological pattern. For further evaluation of the relationship between functional properties of the cells on the one hand and the pattern on the other, we propose the pattern interpretation by cellular automata (PICA) procedure. The PICA system consists of an import module transferring real histological images into the data structure of a cellular automaton, a measurement module generating a comparable quantitative description of real and simulated images, a cellular automation designed to simulate tumour growth and invasion at the histological level, a database consisting of the morphological results obtained in simulated patterns, an interpretation module linking real histological images to the knowledge stored in the database and an image synthesis and display module. By comparing real images to computer-simulated patterns, PICA facilitates an estimation of functional properties based on the static histological pattern of a given tumour. Using the example of tumour cell adhesion, it is demonstrated that the degrees of tumour-tumour and tumour-stroma adhesion significantly affect the resulting simulated patterns, that, in turn, the morphological evaluation of the patterns enables a reproducible estimation of adhesion and that estimates of adhesion in real images of malignant melanoma of the skin are of prognostic significance. PICA may serve as an additional in situ evaluation technique linking morphological features to functional properties.

Cell Adhesion↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Methodology of a scientific study: from the formulation of the problem to the interpretation of the results--applications to radiology].

A scientific article should convey valid information to the reader. To reach this goal, the article must meet several criteria. First, the problem must be clearly stated. For example with medical imaging, the two types of studies are: -a descriptive study depicting a particular situation; -a comparative analytical study, either evaluating a diagnostic method or searching for prognostic factors. The process of defining the sample population can be distinguished: -Experimental studies can compare two groups of people who, after drawing lots, received differential treatment. -Alternatively, observational studies can investigate either representative samples, exposed versus nonexposed cases, or control cases. Characteristics of the variables are very important. Statistical methods facilitate the analysis of three types of variables: qualitative, quantitative and survival variables. Statistical analysis is used to extrapolate the results of the sample population of the study to the target population. Then, presentation, interpretation and extrapolation of the results must be done using three methods: First, the descriptive study should accurately depict the disease. It must be representative of the pathology relative to the clinical manifestations and avoid any bias. Then, the comparative analytical study for revealing the prognostic factors. These types of studies can be divided into three steps: -by performing the suitable statistical tests, a significant correlation between the prognostic factors and the outcome of the disease can or cannot be demonstrated; -any bias must be eliminated; -this correlation can be quantified by measuring it as a risk; Finally, the evaluation of the diagnostic methods are mostly used in medical imaging to determine which factors need to be measured. Five criteria can be followed for these types of studies: -to obtain good technical quality; -to interpret the results consistently; -to give valid information (requiring proper classification of the clinical signs of the patients according to the definition of disease); -to be helpful in determining the treatment; -to be efficient for the patient and the population. The results of a study on the diagnostic value of a medical test must be expressed as an index of sensitivity, or the rate of true positives versus negatives. This facilitates the calculation of the positive predictive value, i.e. the probability for a patient to become ill if the medical test is positive, versus the negative predictive value, i.e. the probability for a patient to remain healthy if the test is negative. The rigorous methodology of scientific work requires: -clear formulation of the problem; -good definition of the situation and the variables to be measured; -the proper method to collect the data; -the description of the study protocol.

Bias↗

PubMed1977

Mechanisms of hepatic bile formation.

It should be evident from this review of recent investigations that we are still very far from a consistent description of bile formation, much less a satisfactory understanding. Nevertheless certain broad conclusions emerge. Four distinct kinds of active solute transport can be identified, and because bile always has nearly the same osmotic pressure as plasma, each of them is a determinant of bile flow. 1. Concentrative transport of water-soluble organic constituents, of which bile acids are quantitatively most important, occurs in the canaliculi accompanied by the passive flow of water and inorganic electrolytes. Owing to micelle formation the osmotic force for this flow is largely attributable to Na+ ions that accompany the bile acids anions. 2. The canalicular flow obligated by the excretion of bile acids is supplemented by the entry of additional fluid, the so-called bile acid-independent canalicular fraction. Because no organic component has been identified to account for this phenomenon, the active transport of one or more inorganic ions is probably responsible. The limited evidence available at present suggests that Na+ ions is the most likely candidate. 3. The extralobular biliary epithelium can modify the flow and composition of bile by the reabsorption of inorganic ions--a process which resembles reabsorption from the gallbladder in the sense that bile in the lumen remains iso-osmotic with plasma while bile acids and the other organic constituents are concentrated. 4. Under the influence of secretin, and to a lesser degree other intestinal hormones, the ducts or ductules can secrete additional fluid in which HCO3- is concentrated with respect to plasma. A fifth component of bile is generated by the canalicular excretion of phospholipid and cholesterol, but these are insoluble in water and are incorporated into micelles, and, therefore exert no osmotic force. The existence of these processes is inferred from studies of many different species, and it should be emphasized that the picture is a composite one. For example, distal fluid reabsorption has been convincingly demonstrated only in dogs and monkeys, and secretin is not a choleretic in rats or rabbits. It should also be clear that the actual mechanisms of solute transport remain poorly defined. Thus the term active transport in the present context should be thought of in its general thermodynamic sense rather than as denoting any particular transport mechanism. For the future, the most pressing problems are methodologic. To mention only three that seem especially important: ways must be found to sample bile closer to its origin; the proper interpretation of studies with isolated liver cell membranes will require unambiguous methods to certify their source; and descriptions of transport kinetics must somehow be refined to reflect the effective intracellular concentration of solutes as well as their distribution within the liver lobule.

Adenosine Triphosphatases↗

PubMed2000

Workforce planning. Careering down a radical path.

A review of the workings of the medical unit in a district general hospital concluded a radical change in roles would be needed over the next 10 years. The role of healthcare assistants, nursing and therapy assistants and auxiliaries will need to be enhanced to take on more of the unit's work in future. The review proposed the creation of a healthcare practitioner role, covering much of the current workload of junior doctors, nurses and therapists and extended responsibilities for diagnostic tests and their interpretation.

Career Mobility↗

PubMed1995

Computer-aided clinical laboratory diagnosis in conjunction with the electronic medical textbook.

1. INTRODUCTION. Medical knowledge has been increasing and diversifying on a worldwide scale, while the specialization of physicians has been extended vigorously. Under this environment, it may be natural that mistakes are made in a comprehensive diagnosis, as the physician cannot master all of this dramatically increasing volume of knowledge. The knowledge has extended beyond the memory of human beings, thereby causing the deterioration of service; this is called the "Knowledge crisis." To tackle this problem, the Electronic Medical Textbook (EMT) has been conceived and set up as a medical knowledge base for physicians to optimize both their specialties and activities in clinical practice. Meanwhile, laboratory information systems were widely introduced. However, there are few systems which allow interpretation of the findings obtained. With this in mind, we have improved the utility of the EMT by enhancing its function with laboratory information follow-up, thesaurus back-up, Japanese language support, and online access. 2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION. The knowledge database for medical decision-making consists of three categories: 1) Medical domain knowledge (including approximately 3500 diseases) from the AMA's "The Current Medical Information & Terminology (CMIT)"; 2) Knowledge on relationship between laboratory testing results and diseases from "The Effects of Disease on Clinical Laboratory," compiled by the AACC; and 3) Clinical testing knowledge from Otsuka's laboratory test handbook "Kensa-Kojien." These categories are connected by links in the process of cross-reference. In actual use, the first is to select the supporting system bringing up clinical signs and findings on CRT from which users can then choose any representations corresponding to the patient's clinical state. Once the relevant objects have been selected, the system presents the correlated investigative tests to be performed, along with a scope of laboratory tests ordering for its initial investigative task. The required tests against the data objects denoted by "High," "Low," or "Abnormal" are linked to possible diagnoses, which appear on CRT in order of likelihood. Similarly, the possible diagnoses can be obtained directly by consulting the patient's laboratory test results in linkage, by way of automated data transformation into the corresponding data object using the reference interval. If necessary, additional information relative to clinical signs can be added. With the repetition of this procedure, clinically useful tests can be located, thus increasing the likelihood of an appropriate diagnosis. The proposed diseases can be confirmed through cross-reference to the patient's clinical signs from the description in the Textbook on CRT. In order to bolster the efficiency of cross-checking on CRT, the sentences including hit-words are highlighted in red. Moreover, with regard to specific keywords for disease, those sentences are highlighted in green to emphasize differences in between. In parallel, the description points out an active behavior of laboratory test results in the progression of the disease and is also able to display applicable laboratory test listings. Furthermore, this knowledge-based interpretation system is directly accessible via online network services in referring to laboratory test results. 3. CONCLUSION. A combination of the CMIT and laboratory diagnostic information in the knowledge database allows the narrowing down of proposed diagnoses due to its flexible approach, which depends not only on clinical signs and findings, but also on applicable test-ordering support and suggestions. This enhances the potential usefulness of the EMT. The system contributes to the support of the diagnostic procedures and assists in educational setting, because the process can be operated in reverse based on clinical signs and laboratory findings in a dialogue style on CRT. The related disease description highlighted in color has won a good reputation dur

Artificial Intelligence↗

PubMed1991

Understanding antinuclear antibodies.

The American College of Rheumatology (formerly the American Rheumatism Association) diagnostic criteria for connective tissue disorders frequently include positive antinuclear antibody (ANA) assays. Proper interpretation of these tests requires an understanding of the principles governing ANA assays. Assay results are reported in two ways: as titers and as descriptions of fluorescent patterns. A titer is a quantitative measure of ANAs in serum. Different patterns of immunofluorescence are associated with different subsets of collagen vascular disease. Positive results can occur in the absence of connective tissue disease. Accurate diagnosis of connective tissue disorders requires judicious use of ANA assays as well as skillful interpretation of the results.

Antibodies, Antinuclear↗

PubMed1993

[Supporting system for CT diagnosis referring to previous cases].

Since radiologists make diagnoses by prior experience, images from previous studies are helpful in making diagnoses. We have developed an assisting system for CT image interpretation. The Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) method was implemented in order to search reports and images of past cases. This system translates the text of findings written in Japanese into descriptive units, and evaluates similarities between the current case and all stored cases (case base). The CT images of the similar cases can be retrieved for reference images, as well as reports which show examples of interpretation. Since this system employs a key word extracting method, translation and comparison can be performed within a second. In order to evaluate the validity of the similarity metrics, the correspondence between CT diagnoses by radiologists and those of the best matched cases by this system was examined. Forty-eight test cases were obtained from the reports of three radiologists. The case base was consisted of 1,060 cases written by other four radiologists of other hospitals. The matching ratio between diagnoses of test cases and most similar cases was 68.1%. The ratio became higher with the increasing number of stored cases. In clinical study of other 45 test cases, the best matched three diagnoses of 43 cases (95.6%) contained the established diagnoses. In 44 cases (97.8%), radiologists could make correct diagnoses by using this system. This system is useful to prevent misdiagnoses due to preconceptions and/or lack of knowledge. The diagnostic accuracy was expected to improve by using this system.

Diagnosis, Computer-Assisted↗

PubMed1981

[Late Becker's nevus. One hundred cases (author's transl)].

The authors make a survey of a series of a hundred Becker's nevi diagnosed in a recruiting center of the French National Service. It is a statistic study bearing on the male population, aged 17 to 26, in a French region which is supposed to be representative of the French male population of the same age. First of all the authors focus on the various clinical descriptions since this nevus was first described by Becker in 1949, then discuss the problems raised by pathogenic interpretation and the results of microscopic studies. About this lesion, usually said to be pigmentary and hairy, and generally appearing before 20 years of age, is still very little known. Then after a short explanation of their method of study the authors give original results. A hundred Becker's nevi were diagnosed among 19,302 young men, that is to say in a proportion of 0.52 p. 100. A study of the racial, genetic and pigmentary background doesn't enable to retain general causes but rather leads to think of local causes. Half of these Becker's nevi appeared before ten years of age, the other half appearing between 10 and 20. In only one quarter of the cases can the role of the sun be pointed out. The location of the nevi is variable; they are mainly situated on the trunk and only 32 p. 100 of them are located above nipples, which was believed to be the usual place of the lesion. Pigmentation in three quarter of the cases is light brown. The average surface is 125 cm2. Hairs can be seen in only a little more than half of the cases of no lesion associated to the nevus could be found. The study points out that Becker's nevi seem to be more various in their clinical expression and more pigment than could be thought through more classical description.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Muscle pain: animal and human experimental and clinical studies.

The search for the identification of the sensory apparatus encoding muscle pain sensation in humans is recounted. Basic neurophysiologic animal studies, leading to a description of slowly conducting afferent from muscle and definition of high threshold polymodal muscle nociceptors, and pioneer psychophysic human studies together with recent microneurographic experiments in humans are described. The phenomena of muscle pain broad localization and distant referral are discussed, and clinical implications are extrapolated to interpret muscle pain as a localizing sign of mononeuropathy or radiculopathy. The identification of human muscle nociceptors has defined the scientific standard to test emerging clinical descriptions having muscle pain as a symptom.

Animals↗