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PubMed1993

Urinary excretion of epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor-alpha in breast-fed and formula-fed infants.

Urinary epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) concentrations were determined by radioimmunoassay in a longitudinal study analyzing 348 24-h urine specimens of 32 infants (16 breast-fed, 16 formula-fed) during the first 16 weeks of life. EGF excretion showed a statistically significant increase from 6.0 +/- 2.5 to 14.1 +/- 4.9 micrograms/g creatinine (mean +/- 1 SD) during the investigation period. TGF-alpha levels were fairly constant throughout this period. Comparing breast-fed infants, with more than 100-fold higher ingestion of EGF and TGF-alpha, with formula-fed infants, no significant differences in urinary EGF and TGF-alpha excretion were observed. These results do not rule out a systemic effect of EGF and TGF-alpha after intestinal absorption in breast-fed infants. The results suggest, however, that urinary EGF and TGF-alpha originate mainly from sources other than intestinal absorption.

Bottle Feeding↗
PubMed1999

Requirements for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the preterm infant.

Dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids have demonstrable beneficial effects on early development. The effects on neural development are of particular interest. Human milk is the best and only time-proven source of fat and essential fatty acids in the infant diet. Technologic procedures based on chemical and physical separation of the unsaturated fatty acids have permitted the isolation of concentrated sources of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid for clinical use. Virtually all infant formulas in developed countries have increased the levels of gamma-linolenic acid, and several manufacturers in Europe and in Japan have added docosahexaenoic acid, or docosahexaenoic acid plus arachidonic acid, or have also included gamma-linolenic acid in formulas for preterm and term infants. The efficacy of this practice for preterm infants seems fairly well established. The use of stable isotope methods to evaluate biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from dietary precursors may help to better define optimal amounts and relationships of fatty acids in infant formula.

Fatty Acids, Unsaturated↗
PubMed2004

Nutritional and technological evaluation of an enzymatically methionine-enriched soy protein for infant enteral formulas.

Enzymatically modified soy proteins have the amino acid profile and functional properties required for dietary support. The objective of this study was to evaluate the nutritional and technological properties of an enzymatically modified soy protein ultrafiltered fraction with bound methionine (F(1-10)E) to be used as a protein ingredient for infant enteral formulas. F(1-10)E was chemically characterized and biologically evaluated. Thirty-six weaning Wistar rats were fed during 3 weeks with a 4% casein-containing diet. Rats were divided into three groups and recovered for 3 weeks with 18% protein-containing diets based on: (1) F(1-10)E, (2) casein or (3) soy isolate+methionine. Nutritional indicators were weight gain, protein efficiency ratio, plasma proteins, apparent digestibility and protein in the carcass. Additionally, F(1-10)E was added as a protein ingredient of an enteral formula, and its sensory and rheological properties were compared with a hydrolyzed-whey protein commercial formula. F(1-10)E contained 68% protein and 5% sulphur amino acids, with 60% of peptides </=6 kDa. Casein-based and F(1-10)E-based diets were comparable (P>0.05) in weight gain (108 g and 118 g, respectively), protein efficiency ratio (2.7), apparent digestibility (93% and 95%), plasma proteins (5.7 mg/100 ml) and carcass protein (61%), and better than soy isolate-based+methionine diet (P<0.05). Viscosity of the commercial formula and our formula was similar during a 24-h period. Sensory acceptability was 8 for our formula and 3.5 for the commercial one, on a scale of 1-10 (P<0.05). Due to its nutritional, sensorial and rheological properties, F(1-10)E could be used as a protein source in infant enteral formulas.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1992

A comparison of secretory antibodies in breast-fed and formula-fed infants over the first six months of life.

In the present study salivary IgA, anti-Escherichia coli, anti-beta-lactoglobulin and anti-poliovirus type 1 IgA and IgM in serum and saliva were evaluated longitudinally in 13 breast-fed and 14 formula-fed infants over the first six months of life. Salivary IgA was quantified by electroimmunodiffusion; specific IgA and IgM antibodies were determined in serum and saliva by ELISA. Salivary IgA was significantly lower at age one month in breast-fed compared with formula-fed infants but in breast-fed infants salivary IgA increased with age and was significantly higher at six months than at one month. In both groups of infants, at the age of six months, salivary IgA levels were significantly lower than in adult controls. No significant differences in secretory anti-E. coli were observed between the two groups of infants. Salivary anti-poliovirus IgA and IgM antibodies increased transiently only to disappear in most babies at age six months, while anti-beta lactoglobulin IgA and IgM, present in saliva at all ages, showed a wide scatter. No important differences in specific serum IgA or IgM antibodies were observed either between the groups or at different times within the groups.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

A comparison of PCDD/PCDFs exposure in infants via formula milk or breast milk feeding.

Food is the major source for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) accumulation in human body. In infant period, breast milk and formula milk are the major food sources. Congener-specific analyses of 17 PCDD/PCDFs were performed on 10 brands of formula milk samples which were milk-based and 37 breast milk samples collected from women living in southern Taiwan. The levels of 17 PCDD/PCDFs in 10 formula milk samples ranged from 0.468 to 0.962 pg WHO-TEQ/g lipid, with a mean value of 0.713+/-0.163 pg WHO-TEQ/g lipid. For the 37 breast milk samples, their PCDD/PCDF levels were 14.7+/-9.36 pg WHO-TEQ/g lipid, with a range between 4.21 and 52.8 pg WHO-TEQ/g lipid. At 12th month of age for infants, average daily intakes (ADI) of PCDD/PCDFs were 2.1 pg WHO-TEQ/kg/day for the formula-feeding infants, and 13 pg WHO-TEQ/kg/day for the breast-feeding infants. The present data may provide useful information for risk-benefit evaluation of formula- and breast-feeding.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Enterobacter sakazakii: a coliform of increased concern to infant health.

The first cases of neonatal meningitis believed to have been caused by Enterobacter sakazakii were reported in 1961. Prompted by several subsequent outbreaks of E. sakazakii infections in neonates and an increasing number of neonates in intensive care units being fed rehydrated powdered infant formula, considered to be a source of the pathogen, public health authorities and researchers are exploring ways to eliminate the bacterium or control its growth in dry infant formula, processing environments and formula preparation areas in hospitals. Reviewed here are advances in taxonomy and classification of E. sakazakii, methods of detecting, isolating and typing the bacterium, antibiotic resistance, clinical etiology and pathogenicity. Outbreaks of E. sakazakii infections in neonates and adults are summarized. Reports on the presence of E. sakazakii in clinical settings, the environment and foods and food processing facilities are reviewed. Tolerance of the pathogen to environmental stresses, its behavior in powdered and rehydrated infant formulae and hazard analysis and risk management are discussed. Research needs are presented.

Cronobacter sakazakii↗
PubMed1984

Reduction in the antigenicity of whey proteins by heat treatment: a possible strategy for producing a hypoallergenic infant milk formula.

Residual antigenic protein in heat-denatured cow's milk whey and in two commercial infant milk formulas was determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays specific for beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin, bovine IgG1 and alpha-casein. This immunochemical assessment of antigenicity was related to the capacity of the preparations to sensitize immunologically when fed to guinea-pigs for 2 weeks. Antibody production was measured and the susceptibility of the animals to systemic anaphylaxis was assessed by injecting them intravenously with heated or unheated milk proteins. Whey protein that had been heated at 100 degrees or 115 degrees for 30 min was extensively denatured and, in contrast to pasteurized whey, failed to sensitize guinea-pigs for anaphylaxis. Antibody production was undetected or very low. The proteins in SMA powder and SMA Gold Cap liquid concentrate were less denatured and animals given these formulas prepared according to the maker's instructions produced relatively high levels of antibodies to beta-lactoglobulin and alpha-casein and a majority developed anaphylaxis when injected intravenously with these products. As well as failing to sensitize, whey that had received severe heat treatment did not, in most cases, elicit anaphylaxis when injected into animals that had been sensitized with unheated milk. Discrimination between antibodies of the IgG1 and IgG2 subclasses specific for beta-lactoglobulin showed that IgG1, the principal anaphylactic antibody in guinea-pigs, was preferentially depressed in animals drinking heat-denatured milk preparations. The results suggest that heat denaturation of whey protein may be a logical and simple strategy for producing a hypoallergenic baby milk. Nevertheless, the value of experiments in guinea-pigs for predicting results in man is uncertain and the proposal awaits assessment in clinical trials.

Anaphylaxis↗
PubMed2005

Neonatal and infant feeding: effect on bone density at 4 years.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine whether the type of feeding during the first 4 months of life affects bone mineral density at 4 years of age. METHODS: Healthy 4-year-old children were recruited from the offices of primary health care providers. After confirming the type of infant feeding by history, dual energy x-ray absorptiometry analysis was obtained at the University of Nebraska Medical Center and evaluated by a radiologist blinded as to feeding type. RESULTS: One hundred and seventy-eight children completed the study (58% male, 85% Caucasian; mean age, 4.5 years). All children had exclusively consumed human milk (n = 57), an infant formula containing no palm olein oil (n = 56) or an infant formula containing palm olein oil (n = 65) during the first 4 months of life. At 4 years of age, no significant differences were noted in bone mineral content or bone mineral density (P = 0.51 and 0.89, respectively) among the three feeding groups as measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Total body bone mineral content and bone mineral density varied by gender, with males having significantly higher values than females regardless of feeding type (P = 0.028 and P < 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSION: There is no association between the use of palm olein formula during the first 4 months of life and subsequent bone mineral content and bone mineral density in healthy 4-year-old children.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Supplementation of an adapted formula with bovine lactoferrin. 2. Effects on serum iron, ferritin and zinc levels.

Breast milk provides an excellent supply of most nutrients for newborn infants. Infant formulae should be nutritionally comparable to breast milk especially with regard to critical nutrients like iron and other trace elements. Infant formulae supplemented with various amounts of bovine lactoferrin were given to two groups of infants. These infants were compared with infants receiving unsupplemented formula and breast-fed infants. The effects of these diets on levels of haemoglobin, haematocrit, serum iron, ferritin and zinc were examined for a study period of 150 days. At birth, concentrations of iron, haemoglobin, haematocrit and zinc were comparable in all four feeding groups. The fact that the serum zinc level was not altered by lactoferrin supplementation appears to rule out an in-vivo effect of lactoferrin on zinc nutrition of infants. Ferritin levels of breast-fed infants were significantly higher than in non-supplemented formula-fed infants at day 30 and day 90. This difference was seen only at day 30, when comparing breast-fed infants to lactoferrin-supplemented formula-fed infants. Comparing the infants receiving formulae, the formula supplemented with the higher amount of bovine lactoferrin induced significantly higher serum ferritin levels compared to the unsupplemented formula at day 90 and day 150. These observations favour the idea that lactoferrin may be involved in iron absorption. Since this effect was pronounced only after 90 days, it has to be discussed as to whether this effect is a convincing argument for supplementing infant formulae with bovine lactoferrin.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Gastric emptying in infants with cystic fibrosis.

Gastric emptying of meals of pasteurized human milk or infant formula was studied in 4 infants aged 5 weeks to 4 months with cystic fibrosis (CF) and pancreatic insufficiency. A marker dilution technique was used. Three of the patients showed gastric emptying rates higher than those of controls during the first hour after receiving the meal. The gastric emptying rate of the remaining patients, both after a meal of human milk and of infants formula, was similar to that of the controls.

Cystic Fibrosis↗
PubMed2003

Neonatal weight loss in breast and formula fed infants.

OBJECTIVE: To define the range of neonatal weight loss in a population relative to feeding method. DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort study. SETTING: Maternity service providing geographically defined, community based newborn follow up. PARTICIPANTS: 971 consecutive term newborns of birth weight > or = 2500 g during the first 2-3 weeks of life; 34 excluded (inadequate data). 937 included: 45% breast fed, 42% formula fed, 13% breast and formula fed. OUTCOME MEASURES: Maximum weight loss and timing, age on regaining birth weight. RESULTS: Median weight loss: formula fed 3.5%, breast fed 6.6%. Upper centiles for maximum weight loss differ considerably (95th centiles: breast fed = 11.8%, formula fed = 8.4%; 97.5th centiles: breast fed = 12.8%, formula fed = 9.5%). Median time of maximum weight loss: 2.7 days for breast fed and formula fed. Recovery of birth weight: breast fed median 8.3 days, 95th centile 18.7 days, 97.5th centile 21.0 days; formula fed median 6.5 days, 95th centile 14.5 days, 97.5th centile 16.7 days. The time taken to regain birth weight correlates with both the degree and timing of initial weight loss for all groups. CONCLUSIONS: Early neonatal weight loss is defined allowing identification of infants who merit closer assessment and support.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1990

Carnitine supplementation in soy-based formula-fed infants.

Gradual increase of carnitine in plasma, tissues and urine after birth is a normal response of breast-fed infants and those receiving carnitine-containing formulas. Marked reduction of carnitine and acylcarnitines was noted in infants given diets not containing carnitine. These differences prompted the evaluation of the rationale for adding carnitine into soy-based formulas. In healthy term infants the lack of dietary carnitine did not induce deficiency symptoms but reduced the uptake of fatty acids for beta-oxidation. The cumulative effect of various metabolic disorders and carnitine deficient diets may culminate to carnitine deficiency.

Carnitine↗
PubMed1998

Gas chromatography determination of polychlorinated biphenyls in powdered and liquid soybean milks.

A method previously validated for the analysis of individual congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in soybean infant formulas is now used to determine PCB levels in dairy-like soybean derivatives, including liquid and powdered soybean milks. Some differences were found among PCB levels and profiles calculated from the different liquid and powdered soybean milks investigated when compared to previously reported for soybean infant formulas, and those most common in dairy-products from Spain and from other countries. PCB levels detected in liquid soybean milks were lower than those found in powdered soybean milks. Levels reported for these two dairy-like derivatives were lower than those detected in soybean infant formulas. The most apparent difference among soybean derivatives and cow's milk was that individual PCB levels detected in the former were lower than those reported for the latter, except for congeners 126 and, specifically, 77, which showed the opposite trend. This feature was common to all soybean products investigated including infant formulas, powdered and liquid soybean milks.

Chromatography, Gas↗
PubMed1997

The nutritional adequacy of mineral content of formulas.

The nutritional adequacy of infant formulas is a subject with which all pediatricians need to be familiar. Unfortunately, we are still learning what is nutritionally adequate and what is excessive for some minerals in infants. Pediatricians must be aware of the parameters that are used when such recommendations are made. Although this brief does not contain an analysis of each individual formula, the commercial infant formulas currently in use provide an adequate intake of the minerals through the first 6 months of life. Thereafter, supplementation with solid foods is suggested.

Biological Availability↗
PubMed1997

Faecal chymotrypsin in small for gestational age infants: effects of nucleotides and breast feeding.

The effect of diet on pancreatic exocrine function, measured by faecal chymotrypsin activity (FCA), was studied longitudinally in three groups of small for gestational age (SGA) infants in the first six months of life. The three groups comprised breastfed infants (group B), those randomly allocated to receive a standard infant formula (group S), or the same formula supplemented with nucleotides (group N). The three groups did not differ in their birthweight or gestational age. Nucleotide supplementation of infant formula improves catchup growth in SGA infants but whether this is due to effects on the gastrointestinal mucosa or the exocrine pancreas is not known. There were no differences in FCA at study entry but by one month group B had significantly lower values than the other groups, and this was maintained at 2, 4, and 6 months. Groups N and S did not differ significantly at any time point. Nucleotide supplementation of infant formula does not influence pancreatic exocrine function and its effect on growth is unlikely, therefore, to be mediated through the pancreas. This study shows that breast feeding is associated with lower FCA which may be related to the lower protein content of human milk. Reliable interpretation of FCA in young infants requires information about their diet.

Bottle Feeding↗