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PubMed1982

Selenium intakes and status of human milk and formula fed infants.

Selenium status was assessed in 28 infants receiving either human milk (n = 8) or a proprietary formula (n = 20) as their sole nutritional source from birth to 3 months. Infants' selenium intakes were determined from dietary records, "test weighings," and direct analysis of human milk and formula. Fore milk samples (n = 72) collected from group I mothers had a mean selenium concentration (ng/ml) of 16.3 +/- 4.9, whereas the selenium content of proprietary formula was 8.6 +/- 0.9. The selenium concentration of hind milk was significantly greater (p less than 0.05) than that of fore milk. At 3-months selenium intakes as well as serum selenium concentrations for human milk fed infants were significantly greater than those for formula fed infants. A significant positive correlation (r = 0.42; p less than 0.05) was found between infants' selenium intakes and their serum selenium concentrations. The results indicate that feeding practice directly affects selenium status during infancy.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Formula feed preparation: helping reduce the risks; a systematic review.

AIMS: To assess what is known about the risks associated with errors in reconstituting the present generation of infant formula feeds, and to examine which methods are likely to be safest. METHODS: Systematic review, and examination of the range of infant formula products currently on sale in the UK. Studies from developed countries conducted after 1977 were included. All studies investigating the reconstitution of formula feeds for full term, healthy babies were eligible. Parameters studied were: measures of accuracy of feed reconstitution including fat, protein, total solids, energy content, and osmolality of feed; weight of powder in scoop; and reported method of preparing feed and measuring powder. Formula products were collected from one large UK supermarket in 2002. Number of different types of infant formula preparations available for sale were determined, together with scoop sizes for powdered preparations. RESULTS: Only five studies were identified, none of adequate quality or size. All found errors in reconstitution, with a tendency to over-concentrate feeds; under-concentration also occurred. Thirty one different formula preparations were available for sale in one UK supermarket, with a range of scoop sizes. Some preparations had never been tested. CONCLUSIONS: There is a paucity of evidence available to inform the proper use of breast milk substitutes, and a large array of different preparations for sale. Given the impact incorrect reconstitution of formula feeds can have on the health of large numbers of babies, there is an important and urgent need to examine ways of minimising the risks of feed preparation.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

[Protein requirements of young infants. The effect of protein content in food on growth, protein intake and protein utilization].

The protein content of human breastmilk as given by different authors does not agree very well (table I). This may be caused by the stage of lactation and the nutritional state of the mother, which influences the composition of the milk. Likewise there is no agreement in literature concerning the recommended minimum protein level in infant formulae (table II). Generally the protein level in infant formulae is significantly higher than in human breastmilk. In our experiments the growth of new-born infants fed on a formula with a rather low protein level (1,4 g/100 ml) and with an average protein level (1,9 g/100 ml) was compared (table IV). The experimental stage covered the age from 4 weeks up to and including the twelfth week. In the first four weeks of life the infants were breast-fed; after twelve weeks some additional food was given. Both weight and length were recorded of boys as well as girls. No statistically significant differences were observed on the two different formulae. The growthcurves fit very well with the growth of the Dutch infants (graphics). The average weight increase was under all circumstances somewhat higher on the milk with the lower protein content, these differences however were statistically not significant (table V). No significant differences were seen in the food-intake (table VI and VII). The average food efficiency (weight gained per 100 ml of food) was always the highest on the low protein formula. This effect is however not statistically significant. The food efficiency decreased with increasing age. Boys showed a higher food efficiency than girls. The protein intake (grams per kg bodyweight) was of course lower with the low protein formula (table IX). From an average weight increase of about 30 g a day (table V) and the average protein content of the infant, an average protein increment of 3,4 grams a day was calculated. This means that at a body weight of 3500 grams and a milk-intake of 150 ml/kg a day the protein-intake will be respectively 7,4 and 10,0 grams a day with formulae of respectively 1,4 and 1,9 g protein/100 ml. These daily intakes diminished with the daily protein increment of the infant lead to an amount of respectively 7,4 minus 3,4 leaving 4,0 and 10,0 minus 3,4 leaving 6,6 grams of protein that must be metabolized and must be excreted with the urine respectively as 23 mmol and 38 mmol of urea.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Breast Feeding↗

PubMed2002

Comparison of selenite and selenate apparent absorption and retention in infants using stable isotope methodology.

The inorganic selenium compounds selenite and selenate are used for selenium fortification of infant formulas. However, information on absorption and retention of selenium from these compounds is lacking. The purpose of this study was therefore to determine apparent absorption and retention of selenium from selenate and selenite added to a milk-based infant formula in healthy infants. Labeled test meals were prepared by addition of 10 microg Se as (76)Se-selenate or (74)Se-selenite to 500 mL formula. The two batches of labeled formulas were fed as alternate feeds during the first day of the balance period, followed by unlabeled formula. Selenium isotopes were determined in feces collected for 72h after intake and in 3 consecutive 24h collections of urine. Mean apparent absorption was 97.1% for (76)Se-selenate and 73.4% for (74)Se-selenite; mean difference 23.7% (range: 13.8%-35.7%; SD 6.8%, p < 0.001). Mean urinary excretion (% of ingested dose) was 36.4% ((76)Se-selenate) and 9.7% ((74)Se-selenite); mean difference 26.7% (range: 13.9%-36.5%; SD 5.9%, p < 0.001). Mean apparent retention of selenium from (76)Se-selenate and (74)Se-selenite was not significantly different, 60.7% ((76)Se-selenate) versus 63.7% (for (74)Se-selenite). The average difference was -3.01% (range: -14.0%-12.0%; SD 9.4%, p = 0.36). Although apparent selenium absorption and urinary excretion differed for selenite and selenate, selenium was equally well retained by infants from both selenium compounds. We therefore concluded that Se fortification of infant formulas with selenate or selenite can be expected to have similar impact on the selenium nutritional status of term infants.

Female↗

PubMed1995

Vitamin E status of low birthweight infants fed formula enriched with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.

It is recommended in Europe that low birthweight infants (LBWI) who do not receive human milk (HM) should be fed formula enriched with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP). The question has been raised whether LCP supplementation to LBWI formula may have adverse effects on antioxidant status in the recipient infant, particularly on the major lipid-soluble antioxidant vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol, alpha-toc.). We studied alpha-toc. status in LBWI fed HM (n = 15) or formula either without (f, n = 8) or with LCP derived from egg lipids and fish oil (LCP-F, n = 9) on days 4 and 21 of life. Plasma alpha-toc. concentrations increased significantly in infants fed HM [d. 4: 4.53 (1.31), d. 21: 6.35 (2.18), mg/l, mean (SD), p < 0.01], whereas there were no changes in infants fed F of LCP-F. Plasma alpha-toc./total lipid ratios and erythrocyte membrane alpha-toc. concentrations did not change significantly between days 4 and 21 in either group. In contrast, erythrocyte membrane alpha-toc./total lipid ratios decreased significantly in infants fed LCP-F [0.42 (0.13) vs. 0.31 (0.06), p < 0.05], whereas no change occurred in the other two groups. We conclude that an LCP supplementation based on egg lipids and fish oil to formula may induce an early postnatal decrease of alpha-toc./total lipid ratios in erythrocyte membranes of LBWI. Therefore, the effects of different forms of LCP supplementation to infant formula on infantile vitamin E status should be carefully evaluated.

Erythrocyte Membrane↗

PubMed2001

Plasma fatty-acid composition and antioxidant capacity in low birth-weight infants fed formula enriched with n-6 and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from purified phospholipids.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a formula containing n-6 and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) from purified phospholipids increases the content of 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 of plasma lipids and modifies the plasma antioxidant capacity in low-birth-weight infants. STUDY DESIGN: Seventeen infants were fed a conventional formula for low birth-weight infants (F), and 17 a formula containing n-6 and n-3 LCP from purified pig-brain phospholipids (LCP-F). Fourteen infants receiving human milk from a human milk bank were used as a reference (HM). Growth index were measured and blood samples were taken at entry and after 15 days and 30 days of feeding. RESULTS: In infants fed LCP-F the levels of 22:6n-3 in total plasma lipids and in plasma phospholipids and triglycerides were higher than in infants fed F and closer to the levels of HM group throughout the study. Docosahexaenoic acid concentration in total plasma lipids was 3.46+/-0.19 mg/dl in infants fed LCP-F and 2.08+/-0.20 in infants fed F after 15 days of feeding (P<0.001), and 3.83+/-0.30 and 2.15+/-0.20 in infants fed LCP-F and F respectively, after 30 days of feeding (P<0.001). The concentration of 20:4n-6 in the LCP-F was significantly higher than in the F group at 15 and 30 days of feeding. Plasma antioxidant capacity did not differ significantly between the study groups. CONCLUSION: Feeding low birth-weight infants a formula containing LCP phospholipids results in an increase of n-3 and n-6 LCP in plasma towards that of infants fed human milk.

Antioxidants↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Nutritional value of a rice-hydrolysate formula in infants with cows' milk protein allergy: a randomized pilot study.

This study was designed to assess whether a rice-hydrolysate formula allows normal growth and adequate metabolic balance in infants with cows' milk protein allergy. Infants (seven females, nine males; aged 6-14 months) were randomly assigned to receive a rice-hydrolysate formula (n = 8) or a soy formula (control group, n = 8). Standardized growth indices (Z scores) and biochemical parameters were evaluated during a 6-month treatment period. Infants in both groups showed normal growth patterns during the study, and no adverse reactions were seen. Mean plasma biochemical parameters were within the normal ranges, and did not differ between groups. In conclusion, rice-hydrolysate formula may be a nutritionally suitable alternative for infants with cows' milk protein allergy. Larger studies, with satisfactory power, should be undertaken to confirm these findings.

Body Height↗

PubMed1997

Determination of vitamins A and E in infant milk formulae by high-performance liquid chromatography.

A high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method was developed for the determination, in one run, of retinol and alpha-tocopherol in infant milk formulae. The method involved saponification at room temperature and a later extraction of vitamins with n-hexane. The vitamins were resolved with a C18 reversed-phase column and they were detected by UV spectrophotometry. Linearity, precision, recovery and sensitivity were satisfactory. The main advantage of the method proposed is the simultaneous determination of both vitamins using a common extraction procedure and UV detection with a variable-wavelength spectrophotometer.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Cognitive and visual development: influence of differences in breast and formula fed infants.

Several recent studies document a beneficial effect of breast-feeding on later neurodevelopmental outcomes. The mechanisms involved are still in need of elucidation, but evidence is accruing that the fatty acid (FA) composition of human milk plays a role. The composition of body fats, from circulating erythrocyte lipids to brain phospholipids, is linked in infants to the early feeding mode and which FA predominates among circulating lipids influences visual and neurodevelopmental performance test scores. In these studies, greater differences were found between breast-fed and standard formula-fed infants, the latter showing low tissue long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA: arachidonic acid, AA, 20:4n-6; eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA, 20:5n-3; docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, 22:6n-3) accretion and lower visual and neurodevelopmental test scores. Human milk contains LCPUFA, while most available formulas, especially those intended for full-term infants, do not. With the progressive introduction of solid foods, the question arises whether a specific or "ideal" dietary lipid mixture can be found to meet growth requirements and ensure a lipid balance adequate for the early and effective preventive purposes. These complementary aspects are challenges for the paediatric nutrition researcher today.

Breast Feeding↗

PubMed1983

Changes of the plasma tryptophan to neutral amino acids ratio in formula-fed infants: possible effects on brain development.

The ratio of plasma concentrations of tryptophan to the sum of neutral amino acids (valine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine and tyrosine) was found to be significantly lower in formula-fed infants as compared to breast-fed infants and to newborns at birth. This tryptophan to neutral amino acids ratio in the blood is thought to control the synthesis of serotonin in the brain. Serotonin deficiency in the developing brain based on a decreased plasma tryptophan to neutral amino acids ratio may contribute to developmental obesity and/or permanent changes of mental capacity and social adaptability as observed in human subjects who had been formula-fed as compared to those who had been breast-fed in neonatal life.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed1999

Iron nutritional status in preterm infants fed formulas fortified with iron.

AIMS: To prospectively evaluate the iron nutritional status of preterm infants fed either a term (0.5 mg/dl iron) or preterm (0.9 mg/dl) formulas fortified with iron after hospital discharge. METHODS: Healthy low birthweight preterm infants were randomly assigned into three groups at the time of hospital discharge. Group A were fed an iron fortified preterm formula (0.9 mg/dl iron) until 6 months corrected age; group B, a fortified term formula (0.5 mg/l iron) until 6 months corrected age group C, the preterm formula between hospital discharge and term, then the term formula until 6 months corrected age. RESULTS: Seventy eight infants were followed up to 6 months corrected age. Iron intake from formula differed significantly between the groups (A, 1.17 mg/kg/day (SD 0.32) > C, 0. 86 mg/kg/day (SD 0.40) = B, 0.81 mg/kg/day (SD 0.23); p < 0.0001). Haemoglobin concentrations were similar to those of iron sufficient preterm infants of the same postnatal age, and term infants of the same postmenstrual age (after 3 months of age). There were no significant differences in haemoglobin concentration (p = 0.391), plasma ferritin (A vs B, p = 0.322), or in the incidence of iron deficiency (A vs B, p = 0.534). CONCLUSIONS: Iron fortified formulas containing between 0.5 and 0.9 mg/dl iron seem to meet the iron nutritional needs of preterm infants after hospital discharge.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2002

Negligible changes in piglet serum clinical indicators or organ weights due to dietary single-cell long-chain polyunsaturated oils.

Single-cell oils are currently included in human infant formula as sources of the long-chain polyunsaturates (LCP) docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) in many countries, but have not yet been approved for use in the USA. We prepared four bovine-milk-based formulas with AA/DHA=0, 34/17, 68/34 and 170/85 (mg per 100 kcal formula) provided by two commercial single-cell oils. These levels correspond approximately to 0, 1, 2 and 5 times the concentrations used in infant formulas and, due to greater consumption of formula per unit body weight, resulted in daily consumption of approximately 0, 3, 6 and 16 times those anticipated for human infants. All other dietary fat (47% of calories) was provided by a vegetable oil blend used in commercial human infant formulas. Domestic piglets were allowed to nurse with the sow for 24 h after parturition, then removed to individual cages and maintained on one of the four diets. At 30 days of age the piglets were sacrificed, and serum collected and organs weighed. With litters treated as a blocked variable, no significant differences among groups were found by analysis of variance for the following serum assays: alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, albumin, glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, and total protein. No significant differences were found for hematocrit or body weight. No significant differences were found among groups for weights of liver, brain, heart, lung, spleen, kidneys or lung, analyzed as absolute weight and as a fraction of body weight. Hematoxylin/eosin liver sections examined by light microscopy showed no abnormalities as evaluated by an independent pathologist. DHA content in liver and heart and AA content in heart showed significant dose-related accumulation (P<0.05) and confirmed enhanced tissue accretion of DHA and AA from both oils. We conclude that single-cell oils in formula consumed for 1 month in amounts up to 16-fold greater than proposed for human infants in the USA did not result in clinical chemistry or histopathologic indications of toxic effects in neonatal pigs.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

How to meet the lipid requirements of the premature infant.

Through effective use of tables and illustrations, the author discusses the lipid requirements of the premature infant and how these requirements may be met by examining the lipid composition of human milk and colostrum, cow's milk, infant formula, vegetable oils, and premature-infant formula. Also discussed are the variables that affect the composition of human milk and the question of term versus preterm milk.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Vitamin D deficiency rickets due to soybean milk.

We describe vitamin D deficiency rickets in an infant nursed with soybean milk (not specifically designed for infants) instead of cow's milk-based infant formula. Symptoms included irritability and carpopedal spasm when crying. The infant's condition improved with nutrition by vitamin-enriched cow's milk-based infant formula, oral administration 1 alpha-hydroxy vitamin D3 and exposure to sunlight. Content analysis of the milk showed very low calcium, phosphate, magnesium and vitamin D levels compared to cow's milk-based infant milk formulas. This case highlights the unsuitability of soybean milk as the sole provider of infant nutrition and demonstrates the false perception that soybean milk is a healthy food for infants. It is necessary to be cautious about not only health claims for soybean milk, but also today's health and natural food booms. Social enlightenment and correction of such misperceptions are necessary.

Humans↗

PubMed1986

Absorption of fortification iron from milk formulas in infants.

The bioavailability of iron added to different types of cows' milk formulas was studied using mono-isotopic and double-isotopic methods in 396 infants aged 5-18 mo. All the milk formulas were fortified with ferrous sulfate in concentrations varying between 10 and 19 mg elemental iron/liter. Iron absorption from low-fat milks and full-fat milks varied from 2.9 to 5.1%. A higher range of mean absorption, 5.9 to 11.3%, was observed in the same formulas with the addition of ascorbic acid at concentrations of 100 mg/l or higher (up to 800 mg/l), demonstrating its enhancing effect on iron absorption in fortified milks. The amount of milk fat, the addition of carbohydrates, or acidification did not seem to influence iron absorption.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Faecal flora in the newborn. Effect of lactoferrin and related nutrients.

Bifidobacteria, lactobacilli and staphylococci are the predominant organisms in the faeces of breast fed babies whereas in formula fed babies coliforms, enterococci and bacteroides predominate. In vitro studies suggest that the mechanisms responsible are probably related to the acid base properties of the formula and 'immunological' proteins such as lactoferrin and sIgA. In human babies however the addition of bovine lactoferrin to an infant formula has little effect on the faecal flora and does not move it in the direction of the breast fed baby. There are various possible explanations of this lack of effect, e.g., inactivation of the lactoferrin when it is added to a formula, and immunological responses in the intestine to a foreign protein. We consider the most likely explanation is that other factors necessary for the optimum activity of lactoferrin were not present or in inappropriate concentration, e.g. sIgA, lysozyme, citrate, bicarbonate. If human lactoferrin is added to an infant formula it may be these other factors will require attention if the lactoferrin is to have a significant effect. An iconoclastic interpretation which cannot be completely excluded is that the hypothesis of lactoferrin bacteriostatic activity is based on in vitro studies and is not a reflection of what happens in babies. The faecal flora of a breast fed baby is very different from that of a baby receiving either cow's milk or a modern infant formula (Figure 1). Among breast fed babies bifidobacteria lactobacilli and staphylococci are the predominant organisms, whereas in formula fed babies the predominant organisms are enterococci, coliforms, and bacteroides (1).

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Patterns of beverage consumption during the transition stage of infant nutrition.

We describe beverage intakes during the transition stage of infant nutrition. Mean daily intakes of infant formula, cow's milk, combined juice and juice drinks, water, and other beverages estimated from a beverage frequency questionnaire were analyzed cross-sectionally at ages six through 24 months (n=701). Most children (97%) consumed human milk, infant formula, or cows' milk at each age studied. Mean daily intakes of combined infant formula and cows' milk declined from 28.0 oz at six months to 12.1 oz at 24 months. The percentage of children consuming juice and/or juice drinks increased with age, and mean daily consumption peaked at 9.1 oz at 20 months. Combined formula and cows' milk intakes were inversely associated with juice and juice drink intakes at all ages (-0.25 < r < 0; P<.01). Juice and juice drinks appear to replace formula and milk intakes during the transition stage of infant nutrition.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

[The toxicological estimation of the heavy metal content (Cd, Hg, Pb) in food for infants and small children].

There are differences between young and adult organisms regarding toxokinetic aspects and clinical manifestations of heavy metal intoxications. Chronically, toxic Cd intake causes a microcytotic hypochromic anemia in young rats at lower exposure levels and after shorter exposure periods than in adult animals. Cd absorption is increased by co-administration of milk and in conjunction with iron deficiency. After long exposure periods toxic Cd concentrations accumulate in the kidney cortex; this process starts very early in life. In 3-year-old children Cd concentrations in the kidney can reach up to one-third of those found in adults. Hg++ and methyl-Hg can cause Hg encephalopathia, and frequently cause mental retardation in adults. Correspondingly, Hg++ accumulation in the brains of suckling rats is approx. 10 times higher than in grown animals. Milk increases the bioavailability of Hg++. In suckling rats Hg is bound to a greater extent to ligands in the erythrocytes. Methyl-Hg concentrations in breast milk reach 5% of those in maternal plasma and that is a severe hazard for breastfed children of exposed mothers. Toxic Pb concentrations can lead to Pb encephalopathia. A high percentage of surviving children have seizures and show signs of mental retardation. Anemia and reduced intelligence scores were recently observed in children after exposure to very low levels of Pb. Pb absorption is increased in children and after co-administration of milk. There are no definite proofs for carcinogenesis or mutagenesis after oral exposure to Cd, Hg, and Pb in man. Heavy metal concentrations were found in the same order of magnitude in commercial infant formulas and in breast milk. When infant formulas are reconstituted with contaminated tap water, however, Pb and Cd concentrations can be much higher. The average heavy metal uptake from such diets exceeds the provisional tolerable weekly intake levels set by the WHO for adults, calculated on the basis of an average food intake and a downscaled body weight. These considerations do not even provide for differences in absorption and distribution or for the increased sensitivity of children to heavy metal exposure. However, dilution effects for essential heavy metals were observed in fast-growing young children; this effect might be extrapolated to toxic metals. These theoretical considerations are compared with epidemiological evidence. A health statistic from Baltimore shows a decline of Pb intoxications in infants. This observation correlates with a simultaneous decline in exposure to Pb which was due, for example, to decreased use of lead dyes in house paints and the abolition of tin cans for infant food.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗