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PubMed1996

Annotation: behavioural phenotypes: a window onto the biology of behaviour.

Characteristic behavioural patterns (including cognitive processes and social interactions) have been reported in a number of syndromes arising from genetic or chromosomal abnormalities, suggesting that molecular analysis of the underlying defect could reveal the biological basis of the behavioural phenotype. Because of the rarity of many of the syndromes, and the complexity of their genetic basis, there are great difficulties in establishing the validity of the association between syndrome and behavioural phenotype. Nevertheless, evidence from animal studies with relevance to human behavioural phenotypes shows that the pathway from genotype to phenotype may be accessible by careful delineation of behavioural phenotypes.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Annotation: computers for learning: psychological perspectives.

The research literature on the use of computers in support of learning is already vast. In this review, the focus is on children's learning, and on the way in which psychological theories of learning have informed (and to a lesser extent, been informed by) developments in the field of computer-based learning. Associationist, constructivist, and social-constructivist approaches are explored, and issues of equity, access, and special learning needs are addressed. It is concluded that computers have led to, and will continue to lead to, significant changes in both what and how children learn.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Annotation: correspondence analysis.

Correspondence analysis is a useful technique in the investigation of relationships between categorical variables. By displaying these relationships graphically, correspondence analysis solutions may allow investigators to obtain insights into the structure of their data more readily than would be obtained by simply studying tables of numerical values and examining associated chi-squared statistics. Some experience of using correspondence analysis solutions in practice is generally necessary to appreciate the method's usefulness fully. An interesting application of the method in a longitudinal study of cognitive development is given in Lautrey and Cibois (1992), and some suggestions as to how best to combine correspondence analysis with a more formal method such as log-linear modelling are given in Van der Heyden and de Leeuw (1985).

Child↗
PubMed2004

Annotation: The similarities and differences between autistic disorder and Asperger's disorder: a review of the empirical evidence.

BACKGROUND: The ongoing controversy over the distinction between autistic disorder and Asperger's disorder is important to resolve because of the implications regarding an understanding of the aetiology and prognosis, and the diagnostic and clinical practices relating to these conditions. This paper provides a critical evaluation of current published research evidence. METHOD: Databases, such as PsychINFO and Medline, as well as book chapters, reference lists from relevant articles, and recent editions of key journals were searched for all relevant studies (until 2002) which incorporated participants diagnosed with high-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder using either cluster analysis or comparative approaches to examine similarities and differences between these groups. Keywords used in the searches included autistic disorder, Asperger's disorder, autism, high-functioning autism, and pervasive developmental disorder. RESULTS: On the basis of the available evidence, there seem to be few qualitative differences between autistic disorder and Asperger's disorder. CONCLUSION: There is currently insufficient evidence to establish the validity of Asperger's disorder as a syndrome distinct from high-functioning autism. The findings are consistent with the view that these disorders belong on an autism spectrum.

Asperger Syndrome↗
PubMed2004

Annotation: Development of facial expression recognition from childhood to adolescence: behavioural and neurological perspectives.

BACKGROUND: Intact emotion processing is critical for normal emotional development. Recent advances in neuroimaging have facilitated the examination of brain development, and have allowed for the exploration of the relationships between the development of emotion processing abilities, and that of associated neural systems. METHODS: A literature review was performed of published studies examining the development of emotion expression recognition in normal children and psychiatric populations, and of the development of neural systems important for emotion processing. RESULTS: Few studies have explored the development of emotion expression recognition throughout childhood and adolescence. Behavioural studies suggest continued development throughout childhood and adolescence (reflected by accuracy scores and speed of processing), which varies according to the category of emotion displayed. Factors such as sex, socio-economic status, and verbal ability may also affect this development. Functional neuroimaging studies in adults highlight the role of the amygdala in emotion processing. Results of the few neuroimaging studies in children have focused on the role of the amygdala in the recognition of fearful expressions. Although results are inconsistent, they provide evidence throughout childhood and adolescence for the continued development of and sex differences in amygdalar function in response to fearful expressions. Studies exploring emotion expression recognition in psychiatric populations of children and adolescents suggest deficits that are specific to the type of disorder and to the emotion displayed. CONCLUSIONS: Results from behavioural and neuroimaging studies indicate continued development of emotion expression recognition and neural regions important for this process throughout childhood and adolescence. Methodological inconsistencies and disparate findings make any conclusion difficult, however. Further studies are required examining the relationship between the development of emotion expression recognition and that of underlying neural systems, in particular subcortical and prefrontal cortical structures. These will inform understanding of the neural bases of normal and abnormal emotional development, and aid the development of earlier interventions for children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Annotation: PANDAS: a model for human autoimmune disease.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcus infections (PANDAS) is a recently recognized syndrome in which pre-adolescent children have abrupt onsets of tics and/or obsessive-compulsive symptoms, a recurring and remitting course of illness temporally related to streptococcal infections, and associated neurologic findings including adventitious movements, hyperactivity and emotional lability. METHODS: Inspired by observations of similar symptoms in children with Sydenham's chorea, a search was undertaken for clinical and laboratory evidence in support of the new syndrome. RESULTS: Consistent and predictable clinical findings have been described in a large case series. Magnetic resonance imaging has supported the postulated pathobiology of the syndrome with evidence of inflammatory changes in basal ganglia. Antibasal ganglia antibodies have been found in some acute cases, mimicking streptococcal antigen epitopes. CONCLUSIONS: While PANDAS remains a controversial diagnostic concept, it has stimulated new research endeavors into the possible links between bacterial pathogens, autoimmune reactions, and neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed2004

Annotation: understanding the development of psychopathy.

BACKGROUND: Psychopaths are not only antisocial, but also have a callous and unemotional personality profile. This article selectively reviews evidence that psychopathic personality traits are an important factor in understanding and predicting the development of persistent antisocial conduct. Cognitive neuroscience research and more tentative genetic work on psychopathy will be discussed, especially as they relate to possible developmental trajectories to psychopathy. RESULTS: A personality-based approach has been successful in clarifying the conceptual boundaries of psychopathy and delineating a group of antisocial individuals with a distinct profile of offending and clear neurocognitive markers indicating problems in processing distress in others and punishment directed to oneself. These markers are also present in children with psychopathic tendencies, suggesting that psychopathy may be a developmental disorder. The neurocognitive profile relates to the callous and unemotional personality traits at the core of psychopathy and may index particular vulnerability to persistent antisocial conduct. Preliminary twin studies suggest that personality traits at the core of psychopathy are much more highly heritable than other personality traits. There are as yet no molecular genetic studies of psychopathy. CONCLUSIONS: It is argued that an interdisciplinary approach that integrates cognitive neuroscience and genetics will enhance understanding of the development of psychopathy.

Antisocial Personality Disorder↗
PubMed2004

Annotation: Deconstructing the attention deficit in fragile X syndrome: a developmental neuropsychological approach.

BACKGROUND: Fragile X syndrome is one of the world's leading hereditary causes of developmental delay in males. The past decade has witnessed an explosion of research that has begun to unravel the condition at its various levels: from the genetic and brain levels to the cognitive level, and then to the environmental and behavioural levels. Our aim in this review is to attempt to integrate some of the extensive body of knowledge to move the research a step closer to understanding how the dynamics of atypical development can influence the specific cognitive and behavioural end-states frequently observed in children and adolescents with fragile X syndrome. METHODS: We conducted a review of the current neuropsychological and neuropsychiatric approaches that have attempted to delineate the pattern of 'spared' and 'impaired' functions associated with the phenotype. RESULTS: The profile of findings suggests that fragile X syndrome should not be viewed merely as a catalogue of spared and impaired cognitive functions or modules. Instead, there appears to be a process of almost gradual modularisation whereby cognitive mechanisms become domain specific as a function of development itself (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992). The results of a decade of intense research point towards an early weakness in one or more components of executive control rather than single, static higher-level deficits (e.g., spatial cognition, speech processing). This weakness affects both the development of more complex functions and current performance. CONCLUSIONS: The prevailing tendency to interpret developmental disorders in terms of fixed damage to distinct modular functions needs to be reconsidered. We offer this review as an example of an alternative approach, attempting to identify an initial deficit and its consequences for the course of development. Through better definition of the cognitive and behavioural phenotype, in combination with current progress in brain imaging techniques and molecular studies, the next decade should continue to hold exciting promise for fragile X syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗
PubMed2005

Annotation: Economic evaluations of child and adolescent mental health interventions: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Recognition has grown over recent years of the need for economic information on the impacts of child and adolescent mental health problems and the cost-effectiveness of interventions. METHODS: A range of electronic databases were examined using a predefined search strategy to identify economic studies which focused on services, pharmacological interventions and other treatments for children and adolescents with a diagnosed mental health problem or identified as at risk of mental illness. Published studies were included in the review if they assessed both costs and outcomes, with cost-effectiveness being the primary interest. Studies meeting the criteria for inclusion were assessed for quality. RESULTS: There are still relatively few economic evaluations in this field. Behavioural disorders have been given relatively greater attention in economic evaluations of child and adolescent mental health. These studies tentatively suggest child behavioural gains and parent satisfaction from parent and child training programmes, although the cost-effectiveness of the location of delivery for behavioural therapies is less clear. In general, the quality of economic evaluations was limited by small sample sizes, constrained measurement of costs, narrow perspectives and over-simple statistical and econometric methods. CONCLUSION: Economic evaluations in the field of child and adolescent mental health interventions are few in number and generally poor in quality, although the number of studies being undertaken now appears to be rising.

Adolescent↗