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PubMed1997

Nesting material as environmental enrichment has no adverse effects on behavior and physiology of laboratory mice.

Environmental enrichment may improve the quality of life of captive animals by altering the environment of animals so that they are able to perform more of the behavior that is within the range of the animal's species-specific repertoire. When enrichment is introduced into an animal's environment, it is important to evaluate the effect of the enrichment program and to assess whether the animal continues to use the enrichment in the long-term. Groups of mice were housed under either standard or enriched conditions for several weeks. Nesting material which was highly preferred in previous studies was used as enrichment. During the period of differential housing several behavioral parameters (behavioral tests and handling) and physiological parameters (urine and plasma corticosterone, food and water intake, body and adrenal weight) were monitored to determine the impact of environmental enrichment. Observations were made to determine whether or not the mice continued to use the enrichment. The results indicated that throughout the study all mice used the nesting material to build nests and that mice from enriched conditions weighed more than mice housed under standard conditions, although the latter consumed more food. No major differences for behavioral and physiological parameters were found between the groups of mice housed under different conditions. Therefore it is not likely that supply of nesting material will jeopardize the outcome of experiments.

Adrenal Glands↗

PubMed1986

Time budgets in growing chicks.

The manner in which rapidly growing chicks distribute their time among diurnal activities was measured in two studies in which the amount of available light was varied to match seasonal extremes. The effectiveness of the chick's time budgets was assessed in terms of the impact on growth. In Experiment 1, 24-hr patterns of feeding, drinking, nesting, and wheel-running were recorded during successive photoperiods with 12, 6, 18, and 12 hr of light when access to a social partner was concurrently available. In Experiment 2, access to a social partner was an exclusive activity. In both studies, chicks' 24-hr behavioral patterns in response to temporal constraints on their diurnal activities were surprisingly plastic, permitting them to defend a normal and high rate of growth. This was accomplished by changes in feeding rate and by nocturnal feeding rather than by systematic elimination of other diurnal activities. When sociality and feeding were competing activities, feeding time decreased and feeding rate increased such that contact with a conspecific as well as rapid growth were defended. The absolute amount of time spent in measured activities was invariant within subjects irrespective of age, photoperiod, or the number and type of activities recorded, providing evidence of time budgets in immature organisms. In both studies, buffer time (the amount of time spent in no activity) emerged as a significant aspect of the daily time budget that is defended through a variety of environmental challenges.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Testosterone and group size in cliff swallows: testing the "challenge hypothesis" in a colonial bird.

The "challenge hypothesis" states that increases in testosterone levels of male animals during the breeding season are directly related to the extent of intrasexual competition for resources or mates that they experience. Although often tested in territorial species, the challenge hypothesis has not been evaluated for colonial animals that live in groups of different sizes and that thus experience different intensities of intrasexual competition. We measured circulating testosterone levels of male and female cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) in southwestern Nebraska, where these birds nest in colonies of widely different sizes. Males had significantly higher testosterone levels than females, as expected. For males especially, there was a seasonal rise in testosterone levels early in the nesting cycle, corresponding to the period when birds were establishing nest ownership and egg laying, and then a fall as they switched to parental duties. Testosterone levels varied significantly with colony size; for both sexes, birds in larger colonies had higher levels of testosterone than those in smaller colonies when controlling for date. Age and body mass were not related to testosterone levels. Higher levels of testosterone for birds of both sexes in larger colonies probably reflect greater competition for matings, often extra pair, in the more social nesting situations. The results support the predictions of the challenge hypothesis.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1997

Maternal behavior in rats with kainic acid-induced lesions of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus.

The rat maternal behavior consists of different pup-caring activities, such as retrieving, licking, and crouching. Mothers also build a nest, consume more food, are more aggressive, and show less fear behavior than in other stages of the reproductive cycle. It has been reported that oxytocin (OT) and the milk-ejection pathway could be involved in modulating maternal behavior. The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus forms part of the milk-ejection pathway and is also the major source of OT release in the brain. Kainic acid (KA) lesions (0.5 microg/0.5 microl) in the PVN performed on day 2 after parturition, affected retrieving behavior in the mother rat and produced a decrease in pups' weight gain. Because KA destroys only cell bodies, the changes that we observed could be due to the local destruction of neurons, rather than that of the fibers of passage. No alteration was observed in other components of the pup-caring activities, food intake, aggressive behavior, and fear in the lesioned mothers.

Aggression↗

PubMed2003

Unusual spectral behavior of charge-density waves with imperfect nesting in a quasi-one-dimensional metal.

Low-temperature electronic properties of the charge-density-wave system NbSe3 are reported from angle-resolved photoemission at 15 K. The effect of two instabilities q(1) and q(2) on the k-resolved spectral function is observed for the first time. With a pseudogap background, the gap spectra exhibit maxima at Delta*(1) approximately 110 meV and Delta*(2) approximately 45 meV. Imperfectly nested sections of the Fermi surface lack a Fermi-Dirac edge, and show the signature of a dispersion that is modified by self-energy effects. The energy scale is of the order of the effective gap 2 Delta*(2). The effect disappears above T2, suggesting a correlation with the charge-density-wave state.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1996

Nursing behavior in rats is impaired in a small nestbox and with hyperthermic pups.

The supine nursing posture, which occurs increasingly as growing pups initiate nursing from their recumbent dam, was demonstrated to require more space than that provided in earlier studies of mother-young contact (e.g., Leon, Croskerry, & Smith, 1978). Further, hyperthermic rat pups were shown to be deficient in eliciting normal nursing behavior. During a 4-hr separation from their dam, 7-day-old rat pups were incubated at 34 degrees C (nest temperature) or at 39 degrees C (WARM). Compared to controls, WARM-litter dams showed increased licking of and hovering over pups and decreased upright crouching, while WARM litters showed decreased nipple attachment and weight gain. On Day 13, similar effects occurred after incubation at 39 degrees C (vs. 34 degrees C), but not at 36 or 38 degrees C. The results stress the need for ethologically meaningful conditions and direct behavioral observations to reveal the importance of pup activity in the mother-young dyad.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Outline of the evolution of behavioral and nonbehavioral patterns of parental care among the vertebrates: critical characteristics of mammalian and avian parental behavior.

An outline of the evolution of parental care among the vertebrates is presented, leading to a characterization of critical features of parental care among the mammals and birds. Among the lower vertebrates (fishes, amphibia) and reptiles there are a variety of patterns of parental care. These can be divided into those that involve parental behavior and those that are nonbehavioral. Among extant species, parental behavior is not the predominant form of parental care, although it is present in many species of fish, frog and reptile. Nonbehavioral patterns of parental care predominate and are equally effective as parental behavior. Parental behavior is based on reciprocal stimulus interaction (trophallaxis) between the parent and the offspring and includes behavior directed at the nest, eggs, and developing young. Among lower vertebrates and reptiles there are increases in the complexity and completeness of parental behaviors but only among the mammals and birds has parental behavior been elaborated as the only form of parental care. Critical characteristics of mammalian parental behavior are: simultaneous onset of birth, lactation, and maternal care, rapid formation of an attachment of the mother to her offspring, synchrony in the behavioral interaction between mother and young during their development until weaning, and the significance of the mother-offspring unit as the basis of social organization. Among birds there is the period of egg incubation in the nest preceding hatching of the young, in addition to the above characteristics of mammals, but the mother-offspring unit is not the basis for social organization.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) foraging and nesting aggregations in the Caribbean and Atlantic: impact of currents and behavior on dispersal.

Although significant amounts of research have been dedicated to increasing the knowledge of the life history of green turtles (Chelonia mydas), large gaps exist in our understanding of juvenile migratory behavior. These gaps can be filled by genetic studies of foraging ground aggregations. Using mitochondrial DNA markers and Bayesian analyses, samples (n = 106) from a foraging aggregation in North Carolina indicated that animals from the east coast of the United States (54%) and Mexico (27%) dominate the composition with the remainder coming from other Caribbean and Atlantic nesting aggregations. These findings prompted a reanalysis of 4 regional foraging aggregations using Bayesian mixed stock analysis, analysis of molecular variance, and diversity measures. Significant regional population structure between northern and southern foraging aggregations in the Caribbean was detected (phiST = 0.27, P = 0.000) in addition to significant nesting aggregation structure (phiST = 0.87, P = 0.000). Haplotype diversity levels were highest at foraging aggregations located within the confluence of major current systems. These findings indicate that both currents and behavior have strong influences on the composition of foraging aggregations. In addition, our results provide evidence of juvenile homing to regional foraging grounds and highlight the difficulties of separating historical and current effects on recruitment patterns at foraging locations.

Animal Population Groups↗

PubMed1999

Male short-tailed field voles (Microtus agrestis) build better insulated nests than females.

Nest construction is an extremely widespread behaviour. In small endotherms the nest serves primarily to provide insulation, and thereby retard heat loss of the constructor, or its offspring. In arctic and temperate regions many small mammals build nests to protect themselves from low ambient temperatures. We measured the physical properties of nests built by short-tailed field voles Microtus agrestis that were kept in captivity under cold conditions. The most important factor influencing nest insulation was nest wall thickness; however, nests with thick walls also contained more nesting material. Insulative capacity of the nest did not reach an asymptote up to nests containing 20 g of material. Nest insulation was not correlated with resting metabolic rate, body mass or body composition of the vole that constructed the nest. However, nests built by males had greater insulation than those made by females; males also had significantly lower food intake rates when compared to females with nests. No significant difference was observed in either fat mass or whole animal thermal conductance between males and females. Thermal conductance did increase significantly with increasing body mass, although not with resting metabolic rate. Voles with nests for prolonged periods had lower food intakes than voles without nests. The absolute saving averaged 1.9 g and was independent of body mass. This was a 28% saving on intake for a 22-g vole but only an 18% saving for a 40-g individual. When voles had nests for short periods they used the energy they saved to reduce food intake and increase body mass.

Acclimatization↗

PubMed2006

Facultative adjustment of pre-fledging mass loss by nestling swifts preparing for flight.

Nestling birds often maintain nutritional reserves to ensure continual growth during interruptions in parental provisioning. However, mass-dependent flight costs require the loss of excess mass before fledging. Here we test whether individual variable mass loss prior to fledging is controlled through facultative adjustments by nestlings, or whether it reflects physiologically inflexible developmental schedules. We show that in the face of natural and experimental variation in nestling body mass and wing length, swifts always achieve very similar wing loadings (body mass per wing area) prior to fledging, presumably because this represents the optimum for flight. Experimental weights (approx. 5% body mass) temporarily attached to nestlings caused additional reductions in mass, such that final wing loadings still matched those of control siblings. Experimental reductions in nestling wing length (approx. 5% trimmed from feather tips) resulted in similar additional mass reductions, allowing wing loadings at fledging to approach control levels. We suggest that nestlings may assess their body mass relative to wing area via wing flapping and special 'push-ups' (on the tips of extended wings) performed in the nest. Thus, by facultatively adjusting body mass, but not wing growth, nestling swifts are always able to fledge with aerodynamically appropriate wing loadings.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2005

The accumulation of a chemical cue: nest-entrance trail in the German yellowjacket, Vespula germanica.

Vespine wasps have been shown to deposit an attractive chemical in the nest entrance. Foragers use this to help locate the nest when returning to it. We determined how many individuals need to track (pass through) the entrance before the chemical is recognized. We found a logistic response as the number of tracks increased. At 200 tracks and above there was a 75-90% positive response rate to the chemical. We found no evidence of trail-marking behavior performed by foragers inside the nest entrance. We conclude that the trail is not an evolved signal, but is a cue composed of an accumulation of hydrocarbons deposited from the legs or feet of workers as they walk on a substrate. This is the first quantitative measurement of the attractiveness of the nest-entrance chemical in a social wasp.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Bilateral lesions of the bed nucleus of the accessory olfactory tract facilitate maternal behavior in virgin female rats.

In this study the effects of electrolytic lesions of the bed nucleus of the accessory olfactory tract (BAOT) on the induction of maternal behavior in virgin female Wistar rats was investigated. Results demonstrate a functional role of the BOAT in the neural control of maternal behavior in virgin female rats since bilaterally BOAT lesioned (BL) animals showed significantly shorter sensitization latencies (BL = 6 days) than sham lesioned (SH = 12 days) and intact control (C = 12 days) female rats. At the same time, statistically significant differences were observed in retrieval latency between BL (5.5 days) and C (10 days) groups, but not in the SH group (8 days). In physical contact frequency, the BL group reached higher scores than SH or C group. However, bilateral BAOT lesions failed to affect other maternal patterns such as nest building quality. Thus these results indicate that the BOAT, a vomeronasal system structure, is involved in the control of maternal behavior and that BL electrolytic lesions facilitate the onset of this behavior in virgin female Wistar rats.

Amygdala↗

PubMed1976

Role of mate's previous experience in ring dove hormone-induced incubation.

Progesterone-induced incubation was examined in 40 pairs of adult ring doves, differing in their previous reproductive experience (courtship vs. nest building) and the previous reproductive experience of their mates (courtship vs. nest building) during testing. Only the previous experience of the experimental subject significantly affected the establishment of incubation during the 24-hr test period. More doves experienced with nest building established incubation than did courtship-experienced doves. The latency to enter the nest area and the latency to stand on the nest were affected by both the previous breeding experience of the subject and the previous breeding experience of its mate. Nest-building-experienced mates decreased the latencies of courtship-experienced subjects, and courtship-experienced mates increased the latencies of nest-building-experienced doves. Males were not more affected by their mates' experience than were females. Time spent on the nest was affected only by the subject's previous experience and sex. While the hypothesis that the behavior of the mate can affect a dove's progesterone-induced incubation was not confirmed, the mate's behavior can affect some of the components of nest responsiveness.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Factors affecting prolactin secretion during the breeding cycle of the ring dove (Streptopelia risoria) and its possible role in incubation.

Plasma prolactin began to increase significantly about 5 days after the onset of incubation in both sexes of the dove to reach a peak at the time of hatch. At this time, the concentration of prolactin in the plasma of the female was significantly higher than in the male. In the middle of the incubation period prolactin levels measured over a 24-h period remained constant in both sexes, although the male sits during the middle of the day and the female for the rest of the time. Nest deprivation resulted in a sharp, significant decline in the concentration of prolactin in both sexes. Newly hatched squabs stimulated the release of prolactin only in those doves which had been incubating eggs for several days. A distinct sex difference was observed in the expression of nest defence behaviour of the ring dove during the breeding cycle. At the time of laying, the female was significantly more aggressive than the male and her aggression increased only slightly up to the time of hatching. In contrast, male aggression increased gradually from a low level at laying to reach a peak at the time of hatching. The levels of plasma progesterone in the female showed a significant increase around the time of lay. No significant changes occurred in the plasma concentration of either progesterone or 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone in the male. Administration of prolactin increased the length of time of incubation of infertile eggs. Nest manipulations which had the effect of inducing the doves to begin incubation 4 days before laying showed that (1) the length of time of incubation of infertile eggs is fixed and independent of events which occur at courtship or oviposition, (2) the initiation of the increase in plasma prolactin concentration during incubation is independent of events which occur at courtship and oviposition and (3) the termination of incubation is always preceded by a fall in the concentration of plasma prolactin. It is concluded that the length of time of incubation is dependent upon sustained raised levels of plasma prolactin. The concentration of plasma prolactin increases several days after the onset of incubation in response to the tactile stimulation of sitting. High levels, if maintained by visual stimulation from the nest, maintain incubation for a fixed period. After this, if the eggs fail to hatch, prolactin levels fall and the doves cease incubation and begin a new cycle.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Use of Corn-Husk Nesting Material to Reduce Aggression in Caged Mice.

We examined the use of corn-husk nesting material as a means of reducing aggressive behavior in group-housed mice. The experiment was performed by using 128 BALB/cAnNHsd mice. Mice were randomly assigned (8 mice/cage) to one of two groups: one housed in cages enriched with nesting material in addition to standard bedding, the other housed in cages with standard bedding only. Each mouse was examined on days 4 and 7 for evidence of visible wounds. On day 4, the addition of nesting material significantly decreased aggressive behavior for the enriched group, as indicated by mean number of wounds per group. By day 7, the amount of aggression was the same between the two groups. We concluded that use of nesting material decreased aggressive behavior in the mice during the initial introduction phase by providing flexible avenues of escape for subordinate mice. In addition, mice derived enrichment benefits by being provided a diverse cage environment that promoted natural nesting behavior.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1975

Maternal behavior of mice with cingulate cortical, amygdala, or septal lesions.

Nest building, pup retrieving, and pup survival and growth were evaluated in primiparous control mice and those with cingulate cortical, neocortical, amygdala, or septal lesions. Mice with neocortical or amygdala lesions showed little or no deficits in maternal behavior. Mice with septal lesions were severely impaired in all aspects of maternal care. These mice did not build nests, showed a variety of aberrant behaviors during pup retrieving, and their pups died or gained significantly less weight than those of controls. Mice with cingulate cortical lesions retrieved pups more slowly than controls, and retrieving deficits were correlated with the extent of retrograde degeneration found in the anterior thalamic nuclei.

Amygdala↗

PubMed2006

Plasma steroid hormones in two Arctic-breeding shorebirds: monogamy versus polygyny.

Steroid hormones are predicted to vary with mating systems, degree of paternal care and aggression, as proposed in the "challenge hypothesis." We measured plasma concentrations of testosterone (T) and 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in two high Arctic breeding and closely related shorebird species, the polygynous pectoral sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) and the monogamous semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) to examine whether the hormonal findings corroborate the predictions of the challenge hypothesis. In both species, males showed significantly higher levels of DHT and T than females, but in pectoral sandpipers median T levels were 34 times greater in males than in females, whereas in semipalmated sandpiper there was only a 4.9-fold difference. T and DHT concentrations correlated in semipalmated sandpipers and in male, but not in female, pectoral sandpipers. In semipalmated sandpipers, androgen levels were highest in the beginning of the breeding season and then declined, whereas male pectoral sandpipers showed extremely high androgen levels which were sustained throughout the breeding season. In both species, androgen levels were independent of body condition. Several incubating male semipalmated sandpipers had high circulating T levels, suggesting that low T is not required to exhibit paternal care. Our results are consistent with the challenge hypothesis in that androgen concentrations were higher throughout the breeding season in the polygynous compared to the monogamous species. Our study also supports previous studies suggesting that the short breeding season in the high Arctic and the importance of male care to nest success may be factors leading to behavioral T insensitivity.

Animals↗

PubMed1980

Adult responsiveness to ultrasonic signals from gerbils of varying ages: parity, gender, and housing effects.

Groups of adult gerbils differing by gender, parity, and presence or absence of young in the nest were exposed to taped ultrasonic distress calls of male and female pups on postnatal Days 3, 8, and 13. Frequency and time spent performing several behavioral items as well as frequency and time spent in the compartment housing the recorded tapes were assessed in the adult groups. Adult groups differed in rates and durations of certain behavioral items only during playback, with females with young in the home nest exhibiting the highest frequency of nest building in the test apparatus. However, all groups spent more time in the arm from which calls of Day-8 pups were played. Calls of Day-3 and Day-13 pups did not produce significant differences in adult responsiveness. These results reveal significant characteristics of the ultrasounds for each group which parallel certain morphological and behavioral changes.

Aging↗