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PubMed1990

Discrepancy between estimated energy intake and requirement in female dancers.

Dietary intake of energy, protein, fat and carbohydrates in female dance students compared to female music students was estimated by a dietary history method. Energy requirement was estimated from body weight and physical activity both by a standard formula and from the measured work intensity during dance training. Meal patterns showed significant differences in four types of meals on week-days and in one type on weekends. The intake of protein, fat and carbohydrates in absolute amounts and the percentage of energy derived from protein were not significantly different between the two groups. The fraction of energy derived from carbohydrates was higher and that from fat was lower in the dancers than in the musicians. Energy intake was of similar magnitude for the dancers and the musicians (8.3 +/- 1.9 MJ vs. 8.3 +/- 1.7 MJ), while the estimated energy requirement was greater for the dancers (10.3 +/- 0.7 MJ vs. 8.9 +/- 0.4 MJ). The reason for the apparent discrepancy between energy intake and energy requirement of approximately 2 MJ in the dancers is not obvious. The energy intake may have been underestimated. Alternatively, the energy requirement may have been overestimated. The resting metabolic rate may have been depressed by years of low energy intake. In addition, as suggested by some authors, training as such may lower the resting metabolic rate as well as the diet-induced thermogenesis.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Consumption of a dehydrated ration for 31 days at moderate altitudes: energy intakes and physical performance.

Energy intake, body weight, maximal work capacity, and measures of muscle strength and endurance were obtained from eight men who consumed a high-carbohydrate (CHO) dehydrated ration during a 31-day period of high activity at moderate altitudes. Data were collected 2 months before exposure to moderate altitudes (PRE), multiple times during the month's expedition at moderate altitudes (ALT), and after return from the expedition (RET). Work capacity per kilogram of body weight increased significantly from the PRE phase to the ALT phase. Mean energy intake averaged 2,354 +/- 71, 3,430 +/- 79, and 3,384 +/- 117 kcal/day during PRE, ALT, and RET, respectively; mean CHO intake during ALT was 595 +/- 13 g/day. Mean weight loss and reduction in body fat were significant: 1.9 +/- 0.9 kg and 18.9 +/- 10.1%, respectively. Energy deficits calculated from changes in body weight and composition during ALT ranged from 473 to 963 kcal/day, whereas the energy deficit estimated from the Harris-Benedict equation was only 194 kcal/day. The rigorous physical activity and exposure to moderate altitudes necessitated a high energy intake, approximating 3,800 kcal/day. The results indicate that physical performance and nutritional status are maintained when a high-CHO diet, consisting primarily of commercially available dehydrated foods, is consumed over a 31-day period of rigorous activity. However, weight loss and gastrointestinal distress were noted. These events might be minimized when a dehydrated ration is consumed, if dietary fat is substituted for some of the CHO.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1992

Wheat bran and corn oil do not influence proliferation in the colon of healthy rats when energy intakes are equivalent.

Dietary intakes of fiber (wheat bran) and fat (corn oil) by rats were quantitatively varied for 6 wk while intakes of energy and essential nutrients were constant among the diets. The influence of wheat bran and corn oil levels on colonic epithelial cell proliferation was assessed using [3H]thymidine incorporation assays. Cellular proliferation in the cecum, proximal colon and distal colon was not significantly higher when healthy rats consumed low fiber in comparison to high fiber diets, nor when healthy rats consumed high fat diets in comparison to low fat diets. Additionally, there were no significant interactions between these variables. In comparison to the low fiber diets, diets high in fiber caused a significantly lower pH of luminal contents of the cecum and distal colon, but there were no significant differences in the total short-chain fatty acid concentrations of cecal digesta. These results suggest that when energy intakes are equivalent among diets, low levels of fiber or high levels of fat in the diet do not cause biological changes in colonic mucosa that may be associated with increased risk of colonic cancer.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Effects of increased energy intake and/or physical activity on energy expenditure in young healthy men.

This study was designed to examine effects of alterations in energy balance on adaptive changes in components of total energy expenditure (TEE). Nineteen young healthy males were studied during a 10-day sedentary energy balance baseline period and then randomly assigned to one of four 10-day treatment groups: 1) no change in energy intake (EI) or physical activity (PA; energy balance at low energy flux), 2) EI increased by 50% with no change in PA (positive energy balance), 3) TEE increased by 50% by increasing PA, matched by a 50% increase in EI (energy balance at high energy flux), and 4) TEE increased by 50% by increasing PA with no change in EI (negative energy balance). TEE was measured with doubly labeled water, resting metabolic rate (RMR) by indirect calorimetry, and thermic response to feeding (TEF) by indirect calorimetry; energy expenditure of physical activity (EEPA) was estimated by subtracting RMR, TEF, and prescribed PA from TEE. TEE was significantly increased by PA (by design) but not EI. There was a significant main effect of intake and a significant intake-by-activity interaction for changes in RMR. In post hoc analysis, RMR was significantly increased during positive energy balance and energy balance at high energy flux relative to change in RMR when energy balance was maintained at low energy flux. A significant increase in RMR was also noted during negative energy balance after adjustment for change in fat-free mass. There was no significant difference in change in RMR among the three treatment groups.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Energy intake and dietary macronutrient content in women with anorexia nervosa and volunteers.

This study was designed to compare the dietary intakes of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls. Twenty-four patients hospitalized for treatment of anorexia nervosa were compared with 10 normal controls. Patients ate a self-selected diet and maintained their admission weight to within 1.0 kg during this period (19 +/- 3 days). Food chosen by each subject was weighed before and after meals, and intake was determined to be the difference. Intakes of food energy, protein, fat, and carbohydrate were calculated. Patients were closely monitored to ensure that no disposal of food occurred. Patients with anorexia nervosa had a mean daily energy intake of 1,017 +/- 54 kcal (mean +/- SEM), significantly lower than the mean energy intake for controls (1,651 +/- 108 kcal). Similarly, mean intakes of macronutrients (41 +/- 4 gm protein, 34 +/- 2 gm fat, and 136 +/- 9 gm carbohydrate) were significantly lower for patients than for controls (68.5 +/- gm protein, 65 +/- 6 gm fat, and 204 +/- 13 gm carbohydrate). However, when protein, fat, and carbohydrate were assessed as a percent of total calories, there were no significant differences between patients and controls. There were also no significant differences in calories consumed per kilogram body weight. Underweight patients with anorexia nervosa who maintain their weight on an unrestricted hospital diet have energy intake per kilogram body weight and dietary macronutrient content indistinguishable from those of normal women.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Reductions in portion size and energy density of foods are additive and lead to sustained decreases in energy intake.

BACKGROUND: When the portion size and energy density (in kcal/g) of a food are varied simultaneously in a single meal, each influences energy intake independently. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine how the effects of portion size and energy density combine to influence energy intake and satiety over multiple meals for 2 d. DESIGN: In a crossover design, 24 young women were provided with meals and snacks for 2 consecutive days per week for 4 wk; all foods were consumed ad libitum. Across the 4 sessions, the subjects were served the same 2 daily menus, but all foods were varied in portion size and energy density between a standard level (100%) and a reduced level (75%). RESULTS: Reducing the portion size and energy density of all foods led to significant and independent decreases in energy intake over 2 d (P < 0.0001). A 25% decrease in portion size led to a 10% decrease in energy intake (231 kcal/d), and a 25% decrease in energy density led to a 24% decrease in energy intake (575 kcal/d). The effects on energy intake were additive and were sustained from meal to meal. Despite the large variation in energy intake, there were no significant differences in the ratings of hunger and fullness across conditions over the 2 d. CONCLUSIONS: Reductions in portion size and energy density independently decreased ad libitum energy intake in women when commonly consumed foods were served over 2 d. Reductions in both portion size and energy density can help to moderate energy intake without increased hunger.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Protein and energy intake, nitrogen balance and nitrogen losses in patients treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis.

The aim of this investigation was to analyze factors which influence the dietary protein intake (DPI), the energy intake and the utilization of ingested protein, and to determine the relationship between various types of nitrogen losses in stable continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) patients. We performed 23 nitrogen balance (NB) studies of 6 to 11 days duration in 12 CAPD patients. One study was performed in all patients 3.4 +/- 1.2 months after starting CAPD (early studies). The study was then repeated in nine patients after 12.1 +/- 2.6 months, and two of these patients were studied again after 16 and 24 months, respectively (late studies). Before each NB study, the dietary intakes prior to the study were assessed in diaries and interviews. During a few days preceding the NB periods and during the NB periods each patient received an individualized diet composed so as to resemble the patients' spontaneously chosen diet regarding DPI and dietary energy intake (DEI). Total nitrogen, protein, urea and creatinine were analyzed in the dialysate and urine collected daily. Total nitrogen was also analyzed in the feces, collected over the whole NB period. Total nitrogen appearance (TNA), non-protein nitrogen appearance (NPNA) and urea nitrogen appearance (UNA) were calculated by correcting total nitrogen output, non-protein nitrogen output, that is, TNA minus the total protein losses (PL) and urea nitrogen output for changes in total body urea nitrogen. Glucose was determined in the collected dialysate and the daily glucose absorption was calculated. DPI varied between 0.62 and 2.09 g/kg/day, DEI between 21 and 42 kcal/kg/day and the peritoneal energy (glucose) intake (PEI) between 4 and 13 kcal/kg/day. DPI (but not DEI) correlated with Kt/V(urea) and Kt/VCr and with total and renal clearances for urea and creatinine. NB (not corrected for "unmeasured" nitrogen losses) was positive in most studies, and it correlated with DPI and the total energy intake (TEI) in the early studies, but only with TEI in the late studies. DPI correlated with TNA, NPNA, UNA, non-protein-non-urea nitrogen loss and fecal nitrogen loss. UNA was highly correlated with TNA and NPNA (r = 0.95). We used data from 33 NB studies in CAPD patients (our present data combined with data from the literature) to calculate regression equations describing the relationship between TNA and NPNA, respectively, and UNA.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Compensatory increase in lactase expression by enterocytes of neonatal pigs on a low energy intake.

A restricted energy intake in the immediate postnatal period has been found to result in a significant increase in the maximal expression of lactase by enterocytes from 2-week-old pigs. Although villus size was significantly reduced on a low compared with a high food intake, total villus lactase activity was unaffected because of the compensatory increase in lactase expression by individual enterocytes.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Phenotypic and genetic relationships between residual energy intake and growth, feed intake, and carcass traits of young bulls.

Residual energy intake, defined as actual minus predicted energy intake during a production period, was estimated for each of 650 bull calves of 31 Holstein Friesian or Brown Swiss sires. Residual energy intake, measured under ad libitum feeding, had heritabilities similar to those of growth rate and energy conversion ratio with an estimate of approximately .3. Residual energy intake was related to average daily energy intake both phenotypically and genetically such that selection for decreased residual energy intake would lead to a decrease in daily feed intake. Such selection would also tend to increase carcass fatness (i.e., genetically fat animals are the most efficient). Residual energy intake estimated with and without correction for carcass composition were closely correlated. Thus, residual energy intake may be estimated without the knowledge of carcass composition in growing bulls of dual-purpose breeds.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1990

Effects of body composition, pre- and postpartum energy intake and stage of production of energy utilization by beef cows.

Mature Charolais x Angus cows (n = 128) were adjusted to a body condition score (BCS) of 3 (1 = very thin, 3 = moderate, 5 = very fat) between 130 and 190 d of gestation. When cows averaged 190 d of gestation, they were assigned randomly to a maintenance energy diet (ME) or to a diet very low in energy (LE). Cows were allotted within these prepartum (PRP) diets to a high-energy (HE) or LE diet at parturition. At 30 d postpartum (PP), cows were allotted to four treatments: a) slaughter at 0 (n = 32) or b) 48 h after calf removal (n = 32), c) cows whose calves were early weaned at 30 d PP (n = 32) or d) normally weaned at 205 d PP (n = 32). Low energy PRP intake reduced (P less than .01) BCS, cow weight, total empty body lipid (TEBL), body energy (BE) and daily predicted maintenance energy (PME)/W.75 by parturition. Pre- and postpartum energy intake combined to affect (P less than .10) these same factors in a similar manner at 30 d PP. From 30 to 60 d PP, early weaning reduced (P less than .05) PME/W.75. Cow BCS at 190 d of gestation had little effect (P greater than .10) on PME/W.75 or PME/Mcal of BE. Body condition score at parturition, however, affected (P less than .05) delta BCS, delta BE and PME/Mcal of BE by 30 and 60 d PP, with thinner cows losing less condition and requiring more PME/Mcal of BE. Cow BCS had a similar effect from 30 to 60 d PP. Total daily PME was greater for the fat cows during both the PRP and PP periods. Body composition, PRP and PP energy intake and early weaning affect energy requirements and energetic efficiency of beef cows.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1998

Underreporting of energy intake in 1 to 18 year old German children and adolescents.

It is generally accepted that self-reported food intakes underestimate habitual energy intake (underreporting). Underreporting is often addressed by computing the ratio of measured energy intake to predicted basal metabolic rate (EI:BMR). We used this ratio to study differences between not plausible records (NPR) and plausible records (PR) according to recalculated cut-off values for EI:BMR ratios (< 0.97 to 1.07; age- and sex-dependent) in cross-sectional data of 1,032 3d weighed diet records of 1 to 18 year old children and adolescents. Underreporting (in 5% of total subjects) was age and sex dependent: about 1% in the 1 to 5 year old children, 2% (3%) in the 6 to 13 year old males (females) and 12% (20%) in the adolescent males (females), respectively. To analyse differences between subgroups with PR vs. NPR we therefore concentrated on the 14 to 18 year olds. Male (female) subjects with NPR vs. PR had a 40% lower total EI: 7.4 MJ/d (5.3 MJ/d) vs. 11.5 MJ/d (8.0 MJ/d), respectively. In both sexes with NPR vs. PR, EI per meal was lower. Females with NPR vs. PR had a higher body mass index (kg:m2), recorded fewer meals per day, and had a shorter time span between the first and last meal per day. Furthermore, females with NPR vs. PR had higher intakes per MJ of water, protein, fiber, sodium, iron, niacin, zinc, and protein in percent of total EI, but a lower intake of added sugars per MJ. Males with NPR vs. PR answered significantly more often that they usually eat more, had a higher water intake per MJ, and a higher Ca:P. The observed differences between groups with PR and NPR indicate different food habits or dietary recording behavior. Therefore, validity in dietary studies cannot be achieved by simply excluding underreporters.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Adjustment for total energy intake in epidemiologic studies.

In epidemiologic studies, total energy intake is often related to disease risk because of associations between physical activity or body size and the probability of disease. In theory, differences in disease incidence may also be related to metabolic efficiency and therefore to total energy intake. Because intakes of most specific nutrients, particularly macronutrients, are correlated with total energy intake, they may be noncausally associated with disease as a result of confounding by total energy intake. In addition, extraneous variation in nutrient intake resulting from variation in total energy intake that is unrelated to disease risk may weaken associations. Furthermore, individuals or populations must alter their intake of specific nutrients primarily by altering the composition of their diets rather than by changing their total energy intake, unless physical activity or body weight are changed substantially. Thus, adjustment for total energy intake is usually appropriate in epidemiologic studies to control for confounding, reduce extraneous variation, and predict the effect of dietary interventions. Failure to account for total energy intake can obscure associations between nutrient intakes and disease risk or even reverse the direction of association. Several disease-risk models and formulations of these models are available to account for energy intake in epidemiologic analyses, including adjustment of nutrient intakes for total energy intake by regression analysis and addition of total energy to a model with the nutrient density (nutrient divided by energy).

Coronary Disease↗

PubMed1981

The effect of varying protein quality and energy intake on the nitrogen metabolism of parenterally fed very low birthweight (less than 1600 g) infants.

Net nitrogen retention (NNR) and rates of whole-body protein turnover (Q), synthesis, and breakdown (B) were measured in 24 intravenously fed premature infants, birthweight less than 1600 g, at the end of the first week of life. Four regimes were used: Amigenglucose +/- Intralipid; Vamin-glucose +/- Intralipid. Mean protein intake was 2.7 g/kg/day. Mean energy intakes were 68 to 98 kcal/kg/day. Vamin was a better protein source (p less than 0.01), evidence by a higher NNR; 72 +/- 2%, cf. 56 +/- 4% at high-energy intakes. The high-energy intake also improved (p less than 0.01) protein retention (NNR); 64 cf. 50%. Infants receiving 2.9 g of Vamin (394 mg N)/ kg/day and 85 kcal/kg/day of nonprotein intake retained nitrogen at intrauterine rates (282 +/- 7 mg/kg/day). Diet had no effect on Q, synthesis, or B. However, the protein source had a significant effect (p less than 0.01) on the fraction of N-flux coming from protein breakdown (B/Q); 71.7% for Vamin, cf. 77.1% for Amigen. Similarly, energy intake had a significant effect (p less than 0.01) on the fraction N-flux utilized for protein synthesis (S/Q); 91.3% high energy cf. 87.0% low energy. These results suggest that an increased energy intake improved N-retention by enhancing amino acid reutilization for protein synthesis, whereas a higher quality protein improved N-retention by limiting protein breakdown..3% high energy cf. 87.0% low energy. These results suggest that an increased energy intake improved N-retention by enhancing amino acid reutilization for protein synthesis, whereas a higher quality protein improved N-retention by limiting protein breakdown..3% high energy cf. 87.0% low energy. These results suggest that an increased energy intake improved N-retention by enhancing amino acid reutilization for protein synthesis, whereas a higher quality protein improved N-retention by limiting protein breakdown.

Diet↗

PubMed1987

Influence of extremes of protein and energy intake on survival of B/W mice.

Energy restriction increases longevity and life span of B/W mice as it does in mice of other long-lived or short-lived strains. Mice of autoimmune-prone strains that develop certain diseases of aging experience an increase in median longevity when energy intake is restricted early in life. The present experiments analyze the influence of restricting energy intake while feeding constant, adequate and greatly excessive amounts of protein, and constant amounts of minerals and vitamins. The experiments assess the influence of excess protein intake in mice fed ad libitum versus those restricted in energy intake. Ad libitum feeding of diets with protein composition ranging from 15 to 50% did not alter longevity or onset and manifestations of renal disease in B/W mice. In mice consuming a restricted energy intake of a diet providing identical amounts of protein to those consumed by ad libitum-fed mice, whether the protein intake was very high or normal, longevity was equally greatly prolonged. Ad libitum feeding of diets of greatly differing protein content is well tolerated by B/W mice. Both the 15 and 50% protein diets, when ad libitum fed, permitted expression of autoimmune disease and glomerulonephritis in B/W mice but did not adversely influence development or progression of disease. Restriction of energy intake of either the normal protein diet or the high protein diet greatly prolonged the life of mice of the autoimmune-prone, glomerulonephritis-prone B/W strain.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Energy intake by multiple pass 24 h recall and total energy expenditure: a comparison in a representative sample of 3-4-year-olds.

The accuracy of the multiple pass 24 h recall for assessment of habitual energy intake in pre-school children is unclear. The primary aim of this study was to assess its accuracy by comparison with measurement of total energy expenditure by doubly-labelled water in a representative sample of forty-one 3-4-year-olds. The recall method was well tolerated by subjects and was administered quickly and easily. However, it produced estimates of energy intake which significantly exceeded measures of total energy expenditure from doubly-labelled water, mean paired difference 660 kJ/d (P<0.01). Agreement between the two methods was poor at the individual level: limits of agreement 660+/-3018 kJ/d. Error and imprecision in both methods contribute to individual differences, but the present study suggests that the multiple pass 24 h recall does not provide accurate estimates of dietary energy intake in individual children.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMed2003

Body weight gain in free-living Pima Indians: effect of energy intake vs expenditure.

BACKGROUND: Obesity results from a chronic imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. However, experimental evidence of the relative contribution of interindividual differences in energy intake and expenditure (resting or due to physical activity) to weight gain is limited. OBJECTIVE: To assess prospectively the association between baseline measurements of daily energy metabolism and weight changes by studying free-living adult Pima Indians, one of the most obese populations in the world. DESIGN: A study of the pathogenesis of obesity in the Pima Indians living in Southwestern Arizona. The participants were 92 nondiabetic Pima Indians (64M/28F, 35+/-12 y, 35+/-9% body fat; mean+/-s.d.). At baseline, free-living daily energy metabolism was assessed by doubly labeled water and resting metabolic rate (RMR) by indirect calorimetry. Data on changes in body weight (5.8+/-6.5 kg) over a follow-up period of 4+/-3 y were available in 74 (49M/25F) of the 92 subjects. RESULTS: The baseline calculated total energy intake (r=0.25, P=0.028) and RMR (r=-0.28, P=0.016) were significantly associated with changes in body weight. The baseline energy expenditure due to physical activity was not associated with changes in body weight. CONCLUSION: Using state-of-the-art methods to assess energy intake and expenditure in free-living conditions, we show for the first time that the baseline calculated total energy intake is a determinant of changes in body weight in Pima Indians. These data also confirm that a low RMR is a risk factor for weight gain in this population.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Meals with similar energy densities but rich in protein, fat, carbohydrate, or alcohol have different effects on energy expenditure and substrate metabolism but not on appetite and energy intake.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that the satiating power of the 4 macronutrients follows the oxidation hierarchy: alcohol > protein > carbohydrate > fat. However, the experimental evidence for this is still scarce. OBJECTIVE: The goal was to investigate the effects on appetite, energy intake and expenditure, and substrate metabolism of meals rich in 1 of the 4 macronutrients. DESIGN: Subjective appetite sensations, ad libitum food intake, energy expenditure, substrate metabolism, and hormone concentrations were measured for 5 h after breakfast meals with similar energy density and fiber contents but rich in either protein (32% of energy), carbohydrate (65% of energy), fat (65% of energy), or alcohol (23% of energy). Subjects were normal-weight, healthy women (n = 9) and men (n = 10) studied in a crossover design. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in hunger or satiety sensations or in ad libitum energy intake after the 4 meals. Diet-induced thermogenesis was larger after the alcohol meal (by 27%; P < 0.01), whereas protein produced an intermediary response (17%; NS) compared with carbohydrate and fat (meal effect: P < 0.01). After the alcohol meal, fat oxidation and leptin concentrations were greatly suppressed (meal effects, P < 0.0001 and P < 0.05) and triacylglycerol concentrations were as high as after the fat meal. CONCLUSION: Intake of an alcohol-rich meal stimulates energy expenditure but suppresses fat oxidation and leptin more than do isoenergetically dense meals rich in protein, carbohydrate, or fat. Despite differences in substrate metabolism and hormone concentrations, satiety and ad libitum energy intake were not significantly different between meals. Our data, therefore, do not support the proposed relation between the macronutrient oxidation hierarchy and the satiety hierarchy.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Comparison of energy expenditure by the doubly labeled water technique with energy intake, heart rate, and activity recording in man.

Average daily energy expenditure determined by the doubly labeled water technique (dlwEE) was compared in six subjects (aged 20-30 y) over 2 wk under usual living conditions; average food energy intake and energy expenditure estimated from individual diary records of physical activity. In addition, energy expenditure was estimated from 24-h heart rate recordings carried out on two randomly chosen days of the 2-wk period. The group means of the dlwEE were 1.94 +/- 0.24 (means +/- SD) times larger than resting metabolic rate (= 1.94 met) and nearly identical to the average daily energy intake (1.93 +/- 0.23 met). Energy expenditure estimated from the diaries of activity and from the 24-h heart rate recording varied between 1.67 and 2.24 met depending on the calculation procedure. The dlwEE (1.94 +/- 0.24 met) is much higher than that recently determined for sedentary people (1.25 met) and thus explains that young students may achieve body weight balance with a relatively high daily food energy intake.

Adult↗