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Results for “Mainstreaming”

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PubMed1981

Factor structure of classroom behavior problems for mainstreamed and regular students.

The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to examine the factor structure of behavior exhibited in the regular classroom in order to provide a conceptual framework for classifying problem behavior relevant to the classroom setting, and (2) to determine the extent to which the factors generated from ratings of regular classroom children are similar to those generated from ratings of mainstreamed special education children. Thirty-five elementary-school teachers completed behavior ratings for all of their 876 students utilizing a group-administered adapted version of the Devereux Elementary School Behavior Rating Scale. The factor analysis yielded five factors defined as Conduct Problem, Personality Problem, Adaptive Classroom Behavior, Inadequacy-Immaturity, and Achievement Anxiety. Coefficients of factorial congruence confirmed the similarity between the pattern generated from ratings of regular students and that of mainstreamed students.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1991

Tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines in tobacco and mainstream smoke of Indian cigarettes.

Different brands of Indian cigarettes were analysed, by gas chromatography-thermal energy analysis, for the presence of carcinogenic tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines (TSNA) in both tobacco and mainstream smoke. Preformed TSNA in cigarette tobacco ranged between 68 and 730 ng N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN)/cigarette, between 19 and 174 ng 4-(N-nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)/cigarette and between 98 and 519 ng N-nitrosoanabasine (NAB) together with N-nitrosoanatabine (NAT)/cigarette. The amounts of NNN, NNK and NAB/NAT in mainstream smoke were 11-156, 7-73 and 17-146 ng/cigarette, respectively.

Chromatography, Gas↗

PubMed1985

Simultaneous mainstream-sidestream smoke exposure systems II. The rat exposure system.

A system for exposing rats to mainstream (MS) and sidestream (SS) smoke simultaneously from the same cigarette, and monitoring procedures, are described in detail. The equipment and procedures were used to expose Sprague-Dawley rats to mainstream smoke and to target deliveries of 10, 25, or 50% of the total SS smoke for 17 weeks. The estimated total particulate matter (TPM) dose was highly correlated with the increase in percent COHb for MS and SS smoke, but the COHb/TPM relationships were different for the 2 kinds of smoke. All SS TPM doses were much lower than the MS TPM dose, and the COHb/TPM ratio for SS smoke was much higher than for MS smoke. The TPM dose and per cent COHb for SS smoke were highly correlated with the per cent of SS sent to the exposure chambers. There were no significant differences in the total weight changes during the study for any of the smoke exposed groups, but weight changes during the 12-17-week period for sidestream exposed groups were inversely correlated with the level of sidestream exposure.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Mainstreaming prevention: prescribing fruit and vegetables as a brief intervention in primary care.

This paper examines a brief preventive intervention as a model for embedding public health action in primary care. BACKGROUND: Low fruit and vegetable intake is a major risk factor for cancer, coronary heart disease and stroke. The recommended intake of five portions per day would reduce death rates from these causes by 20%. However, average daily consumption in the UK is under three portions, and it is significantly lower in men, young people and lower socio-economic groups. In order to tackle risk factors such as poor diet, the white paper Choosing Health promises action and funding to mainstream prevention and transform the NHS from a sickness service to a genuine health service. THE INTERVENTION: To promote increased fruit and vegetable consumption, primary care professionals working in a deprived area issue prescriptions which offer the patient discounts on fruit and vegetable purchases. Hand over of each prescription to the patient is linked explicitly to key five a day messages. This brief intervention takes 1-2 min to deploy. IMMEDIATE OUTCOMES: Evaluation is ongoing. However, early feedback suggests that the intervention of prescription plus key messages has a significant impact on patients in highlighting the connection between food and health. Clinicians express satisfaction at having a preventive intervention that can be deployed with confidence and consistency in routine primary care consultations. DISCUSSION: This brief intervention is presented as a potential model for embedding prevention in the day-to-day work of health professionals. Primary care is a natural setting for the promotion of health, but despite success in implementing some public health programmes, it has a patchy record in primary prevention. The reasons for this are examined, the impact of new contractual and commissioning levers is explored, and a general framework for mainstreaming public health action in primary care is proposed.

Cardiovascular Diseases↗

PubMed2006

The mouse lymphoma thymidine kinase assay for the assessment and comparison of the mutagenic activity of cigarette mainstream smoke particulate phase.

The mouse lymphoma thymidine kinase assay (MLA) has been optimized to quantitatively determine the in vitro mutagenicity of cigarette mainstream smoke particulate phase. To test whether the MLA is able to discriminate between different cigarette types, specially constructed cigarettes each containing a single tobacco type - Bright, Burley, or Oriental - were investigated. The mutagenic activity of the Burley cigarette was statistically significantly lower, up to approximately 40%, than that of the Bright and Oriental cigarettes. To determine the impact of two different sets of smoking conditions, American-blend cigarettes were smoked under US Federal Trade Commission/International Organisation for Standardisation conditions and under Massachusetts Department of Public Health (MDPH) conditions. Conventional cigarettes - eight from the US commercial market plus the Reference Cigarettes 1R4F and 2R4F - and an electrically heated cigarette smoking system (EHCSS) prototype were tested. There were no statistically significant differences between the two sets of smoking conditions on a per mg total particulate matter basis, although there was a consistent trend towards slightly lower mutagenic activity under MDPH conditions. The mutagenic activity of the EHCSS prototype was distinctly lower than that of the conventional cigarettes under both sets of smoking conditions. These results show that the MLA can be used to assess and compare the mutagenic activity of cigarette mainstream smoke particulate phase in the comprehensive toxicological assessment of cigarette smoke.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

The role of ammonia in the transfer of nicotine from tobacco to mainstream smoke.

This study has examined the possible effects of ammonia-forming ingredients added to tobacco and of ammonia in mainstream (MS) smoke on the nicotine transfer from tobacco to smoke. The U.S. 1998 Marlboro Lights King Size cigarette was used as a control for four test variants that differed from the control as follows: first, a reduction in ammonia-forming ingredients added to the reconstituted tobaccos; second, no ammonia-forming ingredients added to the reconstituted tobaccos; third, no ingredients at all added to the reconstituted tobaccos; and fourth, no ingredients at all added to the entire tobacco blend. Data were obtained on nicotine in tobacco, tar and nicotine and ammonia in MS smoke, soluble ammonia in the cigarette tobacco, "tobacco pH," and "smoke pH" using the FTC machine-smoking paradigm. Previous research on these cigarettes demonstrated that >99% of the MS smoke nicotine was captured and quantified by the FTC method. Statistically significant increases in soluble ammonia and MS smoke ammonia were observed for those cigarettes with ammonia-forming ingredients added to the reconstituted tobacco. However, ingredients, including ammonia and ammonia-forming compounds added to the tobacco or ammonia in the mainstream smoke in the Marlboro Lights King Size cigarette, did not increase the relative nicotine transfer or the "pH of aqueous extracts of MS smoke." "Tobacco pH" and "smoke pH" had no scientific or practical value for the cigarettes in this study.

Ammonia↗

PubMed2003

Normalizing the exceptional: incorporating the "abortion pill" into mainstream medicine.

Mifepristone, also known as RU-486, and in the US known as "the French abortion pill", finally received FDA approval in the United States in September 2000. This paper discusses the steps now in process to integrate this drug into mainstream healthcare and the sociological implications of those efforts. Each of the steps that is normally taken to introduce a newly approved medication in the US context is rendered highly complex in the case of mifepristone--because of the unique circumstances of abortion in both American culture generally, and medical culture specifically. The story of RU-486/mifepristone, as it is currently unfolding, can be understood as one of attempting to "normalize the exceptional". After offering a brief historical overview of the protracted struggle for FDA approval of mifepristone in the US, this paper discusses the typical processes for integration of a newly approved medication into mainstream medicine and contrasts this process with the special challenges posed by a drug that is associated with abortion. We outline the challenges to implementation, including both external and internal obstacles. We compare the traditional role of a pharmaceutical company in drug diffusion and the circumstances of the company that produces mifepristone in the US. We discuss such external obstacles as the conflict between the FDA-approved regime and an evidence-based alternative; the necessity for physicians to order and dispense this drug; the ambiguity over the need for ultrasonography; and insurance reimbursement, malpractice, and other legal issues. Internal issues addressed include "turf issues" between medical specialties and between physicians and advanced practice clinicians as well as concerns over "cowboy medicine", and patient compliance. This paper concludes with an exploration of the sociological implications of this effort to "normalize the exceptional".

Abortion, Induced↗

PubMed2000

"IARC group 2B Carcinogens" reported in cigarette mainstream smoke.

In the third and final part of a series surveying the international literature on the "IARC carcinogens" in cigarette mainstream smoke, the "IARC Group 2B carcinogens" are reviewed. A search of the published literature shows that of 227 chemical components classified as Group 2B, that is, "possible carcinogens," by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 48 have previously been reported in cigarette mainstream smoke. Owing to its highly interactive molecular nature, removal from or inhibition of a given mutagenic or carcinogenic chemical within the complex aerosol mixture cannot reliably be predicted to reduce either the overall mutagenicity or carcinogenicity. However, in the absence of experimental data demonstrating an increase in adverse biological activity resulting from removal or inhibition of a potentially carcinogenic constituent, negation of the activity of the potential carcinogen may be considered as a desirable circumstance.

Carcinogens↗

PubMed2001

"IARC Group 2B carcinogens" reported in cigarette mainstream smoke.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Investigation of mainstream smoke aerosol of the argileh water pipe.

A first-generation smoking machine and protocol have been developed in order to study the mainstream smoke aerosol and elucidate thermal-fluid processes of the argileh water pipe. Results using a common mo'assel tobacco mixture show that, contrary to popular perceptions, the mainstream smoke contains significant amounts of nicotine, "tar" and heavy metals. With a standard smoking protocol of 100 puffs of 3 s duration spaced at 30-s intervals, the following results were obtained in a single smoking session: 2.25 mg nicotine, 242 mg nicotine-free dry particulate matter (NFDPM), and relative to the smoke of a single cigarette, high levels of arsenic, chromium and lead. It was found that increasing puff frequency increased the NFDPM but had little effect on nicotine delivery, while removing the water from the bowl increased by several-fold the nicotine, but had little effect on NFDPM. It was also found that the charcoal disk heat source contributed less than 2% of total particulate matter (TPM), and that characteristic temperatures of the tobacco varied from 450 degrees C nearest the heat source to 50 degrees C furthest away, indicating that the NFDPM is likely a result of devolatilization rather than chemical reaction, and will thus differ significantly in composition from that of cigarette smoke.

Aerosols↗

PubMed2000

"IARC group 2A Carcinogens" reported in cigarette mainstream smoke.

As a follow-up to an earlier study on IARC Group I compounds, further efforts have been made to evaluate the international literature on cigarette mainstream smoke for reports on constituents classified as IARC "Group 2A: probably carcinogenic to humans" and IARC "Group 2B: possibly carcinogenic to humans." IARC classifies 59 agents, mixtures and exposures as Group 2A. Of the overall list of 59, 50 represent chemical entities or complex mixtures ( [IARC,] ). When only chemical entities which have their origin from cigarette components (tobacco and paper) are considered, further searching of the international literature has revealed that nine chemical compounds of the 50 Group 2A listings have been reported in cigarette mainstream smoke ( Table 1 ). In micrograms/cigarette (mug/cig), the ranges reported for each of the nine compounds are as follows: formaldehyde (3.4-283); benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) (0.004-0. 108); dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DB[a,h]A) (0.004-0.076); N-nitrosodiethylamine (DEN) (non-detectable-0.0076); benz[a]anthracene (B[a]A) (trace-0.08); N-nitrosodimethylamine (DMN) (non-detectable-0.7-1.62); acrylamide (1.1-2.34); 1,3-butadiene (16-77); and 2-amino-3-methyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) (0. 00026-0.00049).

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Fluorescent approach to quantitation of reactive oxygen species in mainstream cigarette smoke.

A novel approach to monitoring of mainstream smoke reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been developed and applied to the quantitation of smoke oxidants. Redox-active fluorescent probe dihydrorhodamine 6G (DHR-6G) was selected as the molecular probe because it is sensitive to typical smoke ROS. The experimental system couples an automatic cigarette smoke machine fiber-optic fluorometer for real-time monitoring of the reaction progress between cigarette smoke and DHR-6G. Quantitation was achieved based on the amount of rhodamine 6G, which is the sole product from DHR-6G oxidation. With the optimization of the trapping efficiency, we detected 391 nmol of ROS/cigarette in the mainstream CS for a standard cigarette 2R4F under standard Federal Trade Commission smoking protocol. Applying this method, we quantified the ROS of selected cigarettes and found that the cigarettes made of burley tobacco have much ( approximately 10 times) higher ROS content in the smoke than that in the tobacco made of bright tobacco. The smokeless cigarette, Eclipse, has comparable ROS with cigarettes made of bright tobacco.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗

PubMed2000

Providing services to Asian Americans with developmental disabilities and their families: mainstream service providers' perspective.

This survey investigated the opinions and perceptions of 44 mainstream social service providers regarding barriers to Asian Americans with developmental disabilities and their families receiving appropriate supportive services. Six main barriers were identified: (1) Language and communication difficulties; (2) Lack of knowledge concerning mainstream service delivery system; (3) Perceived cultural differences; (4) Being a "minority within a minority" in the service delivery system; (5) Individual differences within families and differences among Asian ethnic groups; and (6) Lack of resources to meet needs within the family. Implications of the interrelationships among the identified barriers were discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Determination of benzene and associated volatile compounds in mainstream cigarette smoke.

There is continuing interest, by health professionals and individuals, in the composition of mainstream tobacco smoke. Regular official surveys of tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide yields are from time to time supplemented by special surveys of specific components. In this study, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to identify and quantify benzene and certain other volatile compounds of interest in the mainstream smoke of 26 cigarette brands on the UK market and of smoke from hand rolled tobacco. Validation of the method adopted demonstrated the ability to identify and to measure reliably the yields of benzene and seven other compounds: toluene, ethylbenzene, m/p-xylene, o-xylene, styrene, isoprene and acrylonitrile. Yields of these analytes were ranked and compared with the tar yields of the brands. In general terms, brands yielding < or = 3 mg of tar yielded proportionately more of the vapour phase analytes than did brands yielding > 3 mg of tar per cigarette. For many of the higher tar brands the yield of vapour phase analyte was approximately proportional to the tar yield. Smoking cigarettes with an average yield of 50 micron of benzene per cigarette has been compared with the occupational maximum exposure limit (16 mg m-3) concentration and with US studies on the home environment. Smoking the majority of brands examined could contribute significantly to the population exposure of benzene and the other volatile organic compounds considered in this study.

Acrylonitrile↗

PubMed1989

Artifactual chemiluminescence in the determination of nitrogen monoxide in the vapour phase of mainstream cigarette smoke.

Evidence is presented for the artifactual chemiluminescence from olefins in the determination of nitrogen monoxide in the vapour phase of mainstream cigarette smoke. The interference may be quantified by measuring the residual chemiluminescence remaining in the vapour phase of mainstream cigarette smoke after 24 h. For the nitrogen monoxide analyser used, corrections to the yield of most cigarette brands retailed in the UK were found to be about 1.5 micrograms of nitrogen monoxide per puff, each machine puff being defined by international standards.

Luminescence↗

PubMed2001

Sleep problems in primary school children: comparison between mainstream and special school children.

This paper reports on a study of the prevalence and social correlates of dyssomnias, features associated with obstructive sleep apnoea, and parasomnias in primary school children aged 4-12. Head teachers of schools selected randomly from lists of local primary and special schools were contacted by telephone and asked to distribute a questionnaire package to the parents of all pupils aged 4-12 years. In all, 890 parents of children from mainstream schools and 300 from special schools were approached. The response rates were 64.7% and 60%, respectively. The results showed that significantly higher proportions of children in special schools than in mainstream schools presented four of the five dyssomnias investigated and all of the features associated with obstructive sleep apnoea. In contrast, only two of the seven parasomnias were presented by higher proportions of the children in special schools. Age and gender differences for the two groups of children are presented. Finally, multiple correlations were computed between a range of child, family, and environmental characteristics and the three problems most frequently reported: frequency of settling problems; sleeping in the parents' bed; and night waking. The findings are discussed with reference to other studies of children's sleep problems, and the implications for treatment are considered.

Child↗

PubMed2003

Burnout and job satisfaction: a comparative study of psychiatric nurses from forensic and a mainstream mental health service.

Within the nursing profession stress and burnout are considered to be widely present and problematic. These factors tend to impact negatively on job satisfaction and ultimately affect the retention of nurses. Psychiatric/mental health nursing as a specialty is considered to be a highly stressful environment; however, there is a paucity of research in this area. The current study adopted a survey design to compare forensic psychiatric nurses (n = 51) with psychiatric nurses from a mainstreamed mental health service (n = 78) in relation to burnout and job satisfaction. Forensic nurses displayed lower burnout and higher job satisfaction than their counterparts from the mainstreamed services. These findings are surprising in light of the image of forensic psychiatric nursing as dangerous and unpredictable.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Development of mental attention in gifted and mainstream children: the role of mental capacity, inhibition, and speed of processing.

The study examined performance of 6- to 11-year-old children, from gifted and mainstream academic programs, on measures of mental-attentional capacity, cognitive inhibition, and speed of processing. In comparison with mainstream peers, gifted children scored higher on measures of mental-attentional capacity, responded more quickly on speeded tasks of varying complexity, and were better able to resist interference in tasks requiring effortful inhibition. There was no group difference on a task requiring automatic inhibition. Comparisons between older and younger children yielded similar results. Correlations between inhibition tasks suggest that inhibition is multidimensional in nature, and its application may be affected by task demands. Measures of efficiency of inhibition and speed of processing did not explain age or group differences on a complex intellective measure of mental-attentional capacity.

Association Learning↗