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The impact of first-birth timing on divorce: new evidence from a longitudinal analysis based on the Central Population Register of Norway.

"The association between divorce risks in first marriage and the timing of the first birth is inspected in a life-table analysis of registered birth and marriage histories from Norway. One of the main conclusions is that the high propensity to divorce among women who have had a premarital birth is not confined to those who marry someone other than the father of their child. Also, women who have had a premarital child with their husband, run a much higher risk of marital breakup than do those who had their first baby in wedlock.... It is argued that couples who postpone childbearing beyond two years of marriage may have particularly low divorce rates." (SUMMARY IN FRE)

Birth Order↗

On the psychology of the aging woman. Depression in late mid-life: change or repetition? Another chance for working through.

A woman of 58 came for psychotherapy for the first time suffering from a depressive reaction precipitated by two mid-life events: the marriage of her daughter and the realization that her own cherished marital dream would never be fulfilled. She had postponed coming to terms with the disappointments of her marriage as long as she had had other objects. When these objects were lost, and the distance she had maintained to handle her feelings was threatened, she sought help. There was suggestive evidence that a collusive marital system had sustained an unsatisfactory relationship for 35 years. Her husband was described as an obsessive-compulsive character. His traits were both needed, feared, and resented by the patient, representing the rejected part of herself and aspects of her hated grandmother. Mrs. A. had character traits and a developmental history which supported a diagnosis of primitive hysterical personality. (This type has been described by Zetzel (1968) as "the so-called good hysteric.") The paucity of object relationships in her life, her poor work habits, her inability to tolerate affects were striking. The patient had identified with a pathological mother in a family dominated by rejecting and depreciating attitudes. The patient's use of the defense mechanisms of splitting, projection, and withdrawal as ways of dealing with ambivalence significantly interfered with her self-object differentiation and her capacity for intense emotional or physical intimacy. She could only love men whom she rescued or protected, a pattern consistent with the fact that she could not relate to equals or superiors. Yet she was unable to draw on a good identification with a nuturing mother, so as to really be able to give. There was too much hurt and uncontrolled anger when she was in the superior position with the kind of man who could not meet her dependency needs. Feeling unprotected, she had married a "strong" man, who she expected would meet her narcissistic and dependency demands. He was inhibited and controlled and could neither need nor be needed by her during his active work life. This led to immediate disappointment of her conflicting conscious and unconscious expectations. She wanted him to be strong and ideal, yet to need her and never oppose her. Hence, there was a failure to establish a mature or satisfying marital relationship. She turned to her children for comfort, particularly her daughter, becoming depressed when her daughter married. She found gratification by staying busy tutoring and teaching underprivileged children. In the course of treatment her depressive symptoms disappeared. She felt hopeful, capable of being believed in, and able to cope as a result of the therapist's functioning as her uncritical ally. After she resumed living with her husband she began to acknowledge an ambivalence toward her cherished, confidante daughter and in some ways reversed her previous splitting of husband and daughter. The mean husband became a kindly saint and the darling daughter became a critical, spiteful queen...

Adaptation, Psychological↗

Graduate student marriages: an organizational/interactional view.

This article describes an organizational/interactional model for understanding and working with graduate student marriages. The model first distinguishes symmetrical (student/student) from asymmetrical (student/working spouse) marriages. Then, the major focus is on asymmetrical marriages and the disengagement process that is typical among these couples. Asymmetrical organization, especially within today's ethos of equal roles and equal responsibilities, presents graduate student couples with several dilemmas: (a) it promotes hierarchical confusion, (b) it makes for a problematic marital quid pro quo, and (c) it fosters contextual gaps between the two partners. When these inherent difficulties are misconstrued and mishandled, dysfunctional sequences lead the couple into progressive disengagement. Even as dissatisfaction in the marriage increases, graduate student couples have a tendency to postpone and suspend negotiations. Over time, there is an intensification of the couple's unhappiness but, at the same time, the relationship remains structurally unchanged. The building tension in the marriage typically culminates in a crisis when a milestone in the student's course of work precipitates a major disorganization of the system. Clinical implications of the model are outlined with recommendations for focused interventions.

Divorce↗

Sociodemographic correlates of the timing of family formation in Ghana.

"Using the 1979/1980 Ghana Fertility Survey, the effects of selected social and demographic factors on the timing of marriage were examined. Among the social and demographic factors examined were education, occupation, ethnicity, religion, family structure and birth cohorts. The findings showed the existence of early and universal marriage in Ghana despite the increasing tendency to postpone it. These patterns of family formation in Ghana are influenced by socioeconomic factors such as education, wage employment and urbanization." (SUMMARY IN AFR)

Africa↗

Contraceptive use before and after marriage in Shanghai.

Data from a cohort study of 7,336 newly married fertile couples conducted between 1987 and 1995 were used to analyze contraceptive method choice, switching, and discontinuation in two districts of Shanghai. Twelve percent of couples reported that they had had sexual intercourse before marriage. Only one-third of those exposed to premarital risk of conception were protected by some form of contraception, mostly by withdrawal and periodic abstinence. As a consequence, a majority of these couples conceived, prompting rapid marriage in most cases and induced abortion among one-fourth of them. After marriage, about half of the couples used contraceptives to postpone the birth of their first child, but of these, 40 percent experienced an unintended pregnancy. Method choice was dominated by condoms, withdrawal, and abstinence. After the birth of their first child, almost all couples (98 percent) adopted contraceptives, but one-third of them used ineffective methods. Failure and discontinuation rates were high, giving rise to a high incidence of induced abortion. Increasing numbers of couples switched to the IUD, and this was the preferred method for the majority by the third year following childbirth. These results suggest that wider method choice that includes hormonal contraceptives should be provided to meet couples' needs in Shanghai and that the family planning program's attention should be focused specifically on sexually active unmarried individuals and on the availability of postpartum services.

Adult↗

Taiwan's transition from high fertility to below-replacement levels.

This article compares the fertility experience of Taiwanese in the eight years since the total fertility rate reached 2.1 with that before fertility reached replacement levels. During the earlier period, two-thirds of the fertility decline resulted from falling marital fertility and one-third from higher age at marriage. The changing age distribution retarded this decline. Since 1983, the further decline to 1.7-1.8 has been entirely the result of the trend toward later marriage. Older age distributions now facilitate the decline. Births postponed by those marrying later make the conventional TFR misleading. Computation based on parity-progression ratios raise TFRs from 1.7 to 2.0, a number less alarming to policymakers. Contraceptive prevalence is at saturation levels in all major populations strata. The "KAP-GAP" has disappeared. What would have happened without Taiwan's effective family planning program is impossible to determine, but clearly, contraceptive services supplied by the program were the major proximate cause of Taiwan's fertility decline.

Adolescent↗

Ovarian morphologic features and endocrine profile in amenorrheic patients.

Ovarian morphologic features and endocrine profile were investigated in 20 patients with primary amenorrhea and 41 patients with secondary amenorrhea. In light of macroscopic and microscopic findings, it was possible to distribute the anovulatory ovaries into the following six main types: (1) polycystic; (2) sclerotic; (3) normotrophied; (4) hypoplastic; (5) atrophic, and (6) streak. Anovulatory ovaries with or without follicles in an early developmental stage, such as the streak or hypoplastic type, were found in patients with primary amenorrhea. In contrast, ovaries with follicles in a late developmental stage, such as the polycystic, sclerotic and normotophied type, were seen in patients with secondary amenorrhea. A close correlation between ovarian morphologic features and hormonal parameters, such as serum FSH and LH levels, and the 24-hour urinary excretion of total estrogens was proved. From the present results, visualization of the ovaries and histologic examination of tissue obtained by biopsy might be an accepted part of the investigation of patients with primary and secondary amenorrhea, particularly those also complaining of infertility. It is no longer justified to postpone investigation until the infertile patients have proved their infertility over several years of a barren, marriage, and ovarian stimulation should be considered at an early stage.

Adult↗

Having a future: sexual decision making in early adolescence.

There is meager information about how adolescents decide to become sexually active and use protection against pregnancy and disease. The purpose of this project was to explore the thinking of adolescents, ages 12 to 14, about becoming sexually active and using protection during sexual encounters. In a health class, 45 adolescents responded to questions about influences on having sex and using protection. Short-answer, written responses were analyzed using Heideggerian hermeneutic interpretation. The reflections of youth faced with sexual decision-making focused on self-protection against pregnancy and disease. Postponing sexuality or using protection meant having a future, one that could hold the promise of love, marriage, and desired children.

Adolescent↗

Reproductive potential in the older woman.

There is a definite increase in the number of women bearing children in the 30- and 40-year-old age groups. The total number of women who are 35 to 40 years of age in the United States is projected to increase 42% and the percent births to this age group is projected to increase 37%. This is apparently because of a trend to postpone childbearing and first birth due to women's career priorities, advanced education, control over fertility, financial concerns, late and second marriages, and infertility. Associated with this is an increase in visits to the infertility specialist for older women who have an intrinsic decrease in fecundity with advancing age. Although, on the average, a woman will not experience menopause until about 50 years of age, her effective childbearing period may stop almost a decade earlier. A woman in her late 30s and, especially, early 40s is at some disadvantage in terms of conception delay, ability to carry a chromosomally normal fetus until term, and risk of trisomic conception. Certain endocrinologic parameters have been identified for the woman entering the transition to menopause. Biologic aging of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis is intertwined with changes in the endocrine milieu of the perimenopause and preperimenopause. Despite a clear association of decreased fecundity in older women due to multiple biologic and social influences, so long as the individual has regular cycles and essentially normal endocrine parameters, she should be a candidate for an expedited infertility workup and ovulation induction, if not more aggressive treatment. Her obstetric profile is much improved, except for an increase in congenital anomalies and chromosomal defects. Chorionic villus biopsy study or amniocentesis is advised in all cases, regardless of therapy.

Abortion, Spontaneous↗

Delayed childbearing in Canada: trends and factors.

"Using period and cohort birth order statistics, an overview of the phenomenon of delayed childbearing in Canada is presented. Data employed in the period analysis were mainly from the years 1944 to 1985, while women born between the years 1935 and 1960 were the subjects of the cohort analysis. An examination of selected indices, namely, age-specific first-birth fertility rates, median ages of women at first-order birth and cumulative first-order birth rates shows that there is an overall trend for women to postpone the initiation of childbearing until late twenties or early thirties.... The results indicate that work experience, education, occupation and year of marriage are important variables influencing age at first birth and first-birth interval." (SUMMARY IN FRE AND ITA)

Age Factors↗

[Postmaterialism and fertility].

"Though changes in values have been analysed [for] two decades, their impact on actual behaviour has almost been neglected. This especially is the case with values concerning marriage and the family which [have been] responsible for behavioural changes. Here, the impact of emerging postmaterialistic values on fertility are analysed, deriving from the assumption that the effect of children on the general life-style is large enough to let fertility behaviour be influenced by general value orientations. The main result is that the emergence of postmaterialism has led to postponement of parenthood whereas the number of children is left untouched." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Attitude↗

The U.S. fertility decline, 1961-1975: the contribution of changes in marital status and marital fertility.

Changes in marital fertility have accounted for 83 percent of the decline in total fertility since 1971; changes in marital status accounted for 19 percent, and changes in nonmarital fertility had only a negligible effect. Declines in the level of marital fertility account for a substantial part of the overall decrease; postponement of childbearing did not occur in any significant degree until the 1970s.

Adolescent↗

[Effects of the late marriage of Korean women on the first-birth interval].

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of women's late age of marriage on the interval between marriage and their first birth. METHODS: Data from Year 2000 Korea National Fertility Survey was collected through direct interview questionings, and the data was analyzed based on randomly selected sampling. In particular, the married women (N=5,648) were analyzed for the factors that determined the first-birth interval by performing Cox's proportional hazard model survival analysis. RESULTS: Unlike previous findings, the woman whose age of marriage was 30 or more was more likely to delay the birth of her first baby than were the other women who married earlier. Further, a woman's age at marriage, a woman's residence before marriage, her husband's religion, her husband's level of education and the difference in age between the woman and her husband significantly influenced the first-birth interval. In contrast, for a married woman, her age, level of education, current residence and religion were not significant predictors of her first birth interval. CONCLUSIONS: Our study showed that women who married at the age of 30 years or more tend to postpone their first birth in Korea. When facing the increasing number of women who marry at a late age, the Korean government should implement population and social policies to encourage married women have their first child as early as possible.

Adult↗

Pattern of childbearing and mortality in married women--a national prospective study from Norway.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of different pattern of childbearing on total mortality. DESIGN: A cohort study with all currently married women aged 25 years or more at the Norwegian census in 1970 with follow up to the end of 1985. Information on childbearing was obtained by questionnaires collected by enumerators. Follow up on death was found by a linkage based on the unique Norwegian identification number, between census information and the death register in the Central Bureau of Statistics. SETTING: The study was a national population survey. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 822,593 women with 11.5 million years of follow up and 112,023 deaths. MAIN RESULTS: Nulliparous women had higher mortality than parous women in all age groups. Parity showed a weak association with increasing mortality among high parous women. Lowest mortality was found for parous women with 2-4 children and a late first and last birth, adjusted for socioeconomic group by level of women's education. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate that postponed childbearing may benefit the health of women.

Adult↗

Marital quality among couples living under the threat of forced relocation: the case of families in the Golan Heights.

This study aims to explore how the long period of uncertainty about possible relocation affects the marital quality of the population in the Golan Heights and what forms of coping with this ongoing stress are used. The results, based on both quantitative and qualitative data, indicate a circular process in which the level of stress generated by the uncertainty varies with marital quality and with other personal and family resources, such as potency and an appreciation of the spouse's ability to cope with the stress. Four ways of coping with the uncertainty were observed in in-depth interviews: fighting, ignoring, postponing, and planning. The results are discussed in terms of their meaning for possible systemic interventions.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

Childlessness and marital satisfaction: a further assessment.

Utilizing a stratified random sample of respondents married after the age of 21, this article estimates models of marital satisfaction for theoretically relevant groups of women--voluntarily childless wives, undecided wives, postponing wives, and mothers. Results indicate that all three groups of childless wives have higher mean levels of marital satisfaction than do mothers. More important, the results also suggest that the processes generating marital satisfaction for wives differ depending not only on the presence or absence of children, but also on future childbearing intentions among the childless. Specifically, models of marital satisfaction for the voluntarily childless and undecideds are quite different from those for postponers and mothers. These results are discussed in terms of differences in marital structures and differences in the implied systems of reciprocities characterizing marital interaction and bargaining.

Behavior↗

Population and family planning in China.

As the most populous country of the world, China pursues an integrated programme for socio-economic development with family planning as a vital part of it. The aim is to ensure that population growth does not outpace the economic development, the availability of natural resources and environmental protection efforts. Current policy on family planning includes: the promotion of late marriage and deferred child bearing, advocating the practice of "one couple, one child", to encourage birth spacing for those who want a second child. Technical guidelines are: contraception as the priority; comprehensive use of various contraceptive methods in men and women; induced abortion allowed on request if no contraindications; state provided contraceptives, barrier devices and technical services. The birth rate of 33.34/1000, death rate of 7.6/1000 and natural increase rate of 25.83/1000 in 1970 was brought down to 21.04/1000, 6.7/1000 and 14.26/1000 respectively in 1985. A total fertility for 1950 of 5.87 was gradually brought down to 2.31 in 1990. 260 million births were averted between 1970-1991; the world's "5-billion population day" was postponed for 2 years and Asian "3-billion population day" was postponed for 3 years. The State Family Planning Commission under the State Council was set up in 1981. The China Family Planning Association, the China Population Association and non-governmental organisations promote family planning work in a coordinated way. The current family planning policy is now well accepted in the urban area, and gaining increasing momentum in the rural area. Persistant education is still important to break the millennia old tradition of having more children and more boys.

Aging↗

How old is too old? Age and the sociology of fertility.

Are we due for a new baby boom as couples who had postponed childbearing begin to make up for lost time? Analysis of National Fertility Study data suggest that "later means fewer"--quite apart from the declining fecundity that occurs at older ages. Couples who delay having children until relatively late in life are subject to fewer pressures to have children (or more children) even as the reasons not to begin (or increase) their families become more salient.

Adult↗