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PubMed2002

Unhealthy behaviors and psychosocial difficulties among overweight adolescents: the potential impact of familial factors.

PURPOSE: To compare overweight and non-overweight youth on a selection of self-reported eating, physical activity, dieting, educational, and emotional variables and identify familial factors that serve as protective forces against unhealthy behaviors and psychosocial difficulties among overweight adolescents. METHODS: Data were taken from a 1996 cross-sectional school-based survey of 9957 adolescents in grades 7, 9, and 11. Based on self-reported heights and weights, respondents were categorized as "overweight" (body mass index) > or =85th percentile or "non-overweight." Student's t-tests were used to compare the non-overweight and overweight sample on the self-reported health-related behaviors and psychosocial variables. Logistic and linear regressions were used to identify familial factors associated with a reduced risk of engaging in unhealthy behaviors and experiencing psychosocial distress. RESULTS: Overweight adolescents reported engaging in significantly more unhealthy behaviors and experiencing more psychosocial distress than their non-overweight peers. Among the overweight youth, higher levels of reported family connectedness and parental expectations and moderate levels of parental monitoring were associated with the lowest levels of unhealthy behaviors and psychosocial distress. CONCLUSIONS: Satisfying and developmentally appropriate parent-adolescent relationships are associated with reduced behavioral and psychosocial risk factors associated with overweight during adolescence.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and BMI in relation to self-perception of overweight.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the self-perception of overweight in the study population according to sex, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status and to compare the self-perception of overweight among individuals classified as normal weight, overweight, and obese. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Data from 5440 adults who participated in the 1994 to 1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals and the Diet and Health Knowledge Survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture were analyzed. Data for analysis included self-perceived weight status, self-reported weight and height, and demographic and socioeconomic data. Underweight individuals, defined as those with a body mass index <18.5 kg/m2, were excluded from the analysis. RESULTS: Self-perception of overweight was more common in women compared with men and in whites compared with blacks or Hispanics. Both the correct and incorrect perception of overweight was more common in normal weight and overweight white women compared with black women. More overweight and obese white men correctly perceived their overweight status compared with black men. Multiple logistic regression showed that the odds ratio of perceived overweight was significantly higher in women, whites, and individuals with higher body mass index, higher income, and higher education. DISCUSSION: Self-perceived overweight varied by sex, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Erroneous perception of body weight may have important health and behavioral implications. In particular, a considerable proportion of overweight men may be at risk of obesity if they continue to perceive themselves as having normal weight.

Black or African American↗

PubMed2006

Tracking of overweight status from childhood to young adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study.

OBJECTIVE: To understand tracking of overweight status from childhood to young adulthood in a biracial sample. DESIGN: A longitudinal sample was created from cross-sectional surveys at two time points, childhood (baseline) and young adulthood (follow-up). SETTING: Bogalusa Heart Study, Louisiana, United States of America. SUBJECTS: A total of 841 young adults, 19-35 years (68% Euro-Americans (EA), 32% African-Americans (AA)) were studied. The same subjects had also participated in one of the five cross-sectional surveys at childhood (9-11 years). METHODS: Body mass index (BMI) was used to determine overweight status as per the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention standards. Change in the BMI status from childhood to young adulthood was used to group the participants into the following categories: normal weight to normal weight (NW-NW); normal weight to overweight (NW-OW); overweight to normal weight (OW-NW); and overweight to overweight (OW-OW). Tracking of overweight was defined by (1) correlations between baseline and follow-up BMI, (2) Cohen's kappa concordance test to determine the strength of tracking in BMI quartiles and (3) the percentage of individuals who remained in the same overweight status group from baseline to follow-up. RESULTS: From baseline to follow-up, the percentage of participants who were overweight increased from 24.7 to 57.7%. A total of 35.2% of the children shifted from normal weight in childhood to overweight in young adulthood (P < 0.0005). Baseline BMI was positively correlated with follow-up BMI (r = 0.66, P < 0.0005). A total of 61.9% of the participants in the highest BMI quartile in childhood remained in the highest BMI quartile in young adulthood. The strength of tracking in BMI quartiles was 27% for EA men (P < 0.0005), 23% for EA women (P < 0.0005), 27% for AA men (P<0.0005) and 35% for AA women (P < 0.0005). A total of 53.7% of the EA women remained in the NW-NW category and 31.2% of the AA women remained in the OW-OW category. The percentage tracking (NW-NW and OW-OW) was 72.8% in EA women, 59.6% in AA men, 59.5% in AA women and 48.8% in EA men (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Childhood overweight tracked into young adulthood in this sample and the tracking of NW-NW and OW-OW was the most prominent among the EA women.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Early macronutrient intake and overweight at five years of age.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the influence of the macronutrient intake in early life on the development of overweight in children. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: An ongoing longitudinal study including 147 randomized healthy children followed up from birth. MEASUREMENTS: Anthropometric parameters were measured at birth, 1 and 5 y of age. Dietary habits at the age of 1 and 5 were assessed by age-adjusted food-frequency questionnaires and 24 h recalls. Parents' body mass index (BMI) was also recorded. RESULTS: Parental overweight was observed for 51% children. The prevalence of overweight at the age of 5 y was higher in children with than without parental overweight (37.3% vs 8.3%, P<0.0001). Five-year old overweight children had a higher percentage intake of proteins at the age of 1 y than non overweight children (22% vs 20%, P=0.024) and lower intake of carbohydrates (44% vs 47%, P=0.031). Multiple logistic analysis confirmed that protein intake at 1 y of age was associated with overweight at 5 y (P=0.05). In children born from overweight mothers, prevalence of overweight at the age of 5 y tended to be higher in bottle-fed than in breast-fed ones (62.5% vs 23.3%, P=0.08). CONCLUSION: Parental overweight is a major risk factor for childhood overweight in the first years of life, but an early high protein intake may also influence the development of adiposity.

Body Mass Index↗

PubMed2000

The relative importance of gestational gain and maternal characteristics associated with the risk of becoming overweight after pregnancy.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the relationships between gestational gain, race/ethnicity, reproductive history, age, education and the risk of becoming overweight after pregnancy. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study of adult women from four race/ethnicity groups who had two consecutive births between 1980 and 1990 at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). MEASUREMENTS: Height and pregravid weights for each pregnancy were self-reported. Women were classified as overweight or not overweight according to the Institute of Medicine (IOM) criteria for pregnancy. Gestational gain was defined as the difference between the pregravid weight and the last weight before delivery of the first study pregnancy. SUBJECTS: 1300 healthy women aged 18-41 y who had a singleton, full-term, live birth (index or first study pregnancy) followed by a second birth. Self-reported pregravid weights and heights were used to calculate body mass index (BMI). Women with a pregravid BMI below 26.0 kg/m2 before the index pregnancy were classified as not overweight (n = 1128). Overweight status following the index pregnancy was based on pregravid BMI for the second pregnancy. RESULTS: Seventy-two women (6.4%) became overweight following the index pregnancy. Statistically significant independent predictors of the risk of becoming overweight included: maternal age 24-30 vs above 30 y, high gestational gain, short interval from menarche to first ever birth ( < 8 y), and young age at menarche ( < 12 y). The risk of becoming overweight was increased 2.5-3 times for each of these risk factors. Whites were 4.5 times more likely to become overweight than Asians, but blacks and Hispanics did not appear to differ from whites. Parity, time interval, smoking habit, education, marital status and other factors were not associated with the risk of becoming overweight. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that young age at menarche, maternal age and short time from menarche to first ever birth may be as important as high gestational weight gain in determining the risk of becoming overweight after pregnancy.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

A genetic analysis of weight and overweight in 4-year-old twin pairs.

OBJECTIVE: Although many twin and adoption studies document genetic influence on individual differences in weight, much less is known about genetic influences on overweight, about the genetic links between weight and overweight, or about the origins of weight and overweight in childhood, an age that might provide a good target for prevention of obesity. We tested the hypothesis that, in early childhood, overweight is as heritable as weight and that weight and overweight are linked genetically. DESIGN: Model-fitting analyses were used to compare monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins (same-sex and opposite-sex) for weight and overweight. SUBJECTS: The sample included 3636 4-y-old twins born in the UK in 1994. MEASUREMENTS: Heights and weights reported by parents were used to assess weight corrected for height, which yields results similar to body mass index (BMI) but corrects more completely for genetic effects on height. RESULTS: At 4 y of age, genetic factors contributed substantially both to individual differences in weight throughout the distribution and to the mean weight difference between overweight children and the rest of the population. Unlike results later in life, weight and overweight in 4-y-olds also suggest substantial shared family environmental influence. Results are similar for boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight is the quantitative extreme of genetic and environmental factors responsible for normal variation in weight in childhood. Genes associated with overweight are likely to be associated with variation in weight throughout the distribution, as assumed by quantitative trait locus (QTL) theory. These findings linking weight and overweight in childhood have far-reaching implications for molecular genetic attempts to identify specific genes responsible for genetic influence, for investigating pathways between genes and behaviour, and for intervention and prevention.

Body Height↗

PubMed2001

Health professionals' views of overweight people and smokers.

OBJECTIVES: To examine health professionals' views of overweight people, to compare these to their views of smokers, and to explore the role of level of severity on these perceptions. DESIGN: A postal survey of health professionals employing a two by two, independent factorial design. The health category (overweight or smoker) was divided by level of severity (moderate or extreme), so that respondents received questionnaires about either: (i) moderately overweight people; (ii) extremely overweight people; (iii) moderate smokers; or (iv) heavy smokers. PARTICIPANTS: Two-hundred and fifty-five general medical practitioners and clinical psychologists in the north of England. MEASUREMENTS: A questionnaire was designed to explore beliefs about the causes, attitudes towards, and perceptions of responsibility of overweight people and smokers. RESULTS: Moderately and extremely overweight people were perceived as having reduced self-esteem, sexual attractiveness and health, and to be moderately responsible for changing their situation (but less so than smokers). There were clear level effects in the perceptions of overweight, but not so for smokers. Of the four groups, moderately overweight people were viewed most positively and extremely overweight (obese) people were viewed least positively. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, health professionals' attitudes to overweight people were neutral to negative rather than entirely negative. However, where apparent negative attitudes were more likely to be directed at obese people than moderately overweight people. As obesity is a risk to health, the practice implications of health professionals' negative attitudes or patients' reticence to visit professionals who treat them with disregard must be addressed.

Attitude↗

PubMed2005

Parental perceptions of overweight in 3-5 y olds.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the accuracy of parents' perceptions of their 3 to 5 y old children's weight status in a large UK sample. METHOD: Parental perception and concern about child weight, demographic variables, and children's height and weight were obtained for 564 parent-child dyads. RESULTS: Only 1.9% of parents of overweight children and 17.1% of parents of obese children described their child as overweight. The odds of parents perceiving the child as overweight were increased for overweight (2.7; 95% CI 0.4, 16.5) and obese (28.5; 7.1, 115.4) compared with normal weight children, but were not associated with parental weight or with any demographic factors. Although few parents perceived their overweight children as overweight, more (66.2%) expressed concern about their overweight child becoming overweight in the future. Odds of concern were progressively higher for overweight (2.5; 1.6, 3.9) and obese children (4.6; 2.2, 9.7), and were also higher for parents who were themselves overweight (1.9; 1.2, 2.9) or obese (2.5; 1.3, 4.8). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that parents of 3-5 y olds show poor awareness of their child's current weight status. Reframing discussions in terms of preventing future overweight may be an effective way to engage parents.

Body Height↗

PubMed2005

Use of information and communication technology and prevalence of overweight and obesity among adolescents.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased among children and adolescents, as well as among adults, and television viewing has been suggested as one cause. Playing digital games (video, computer and console games), or using computer may be other sedentary behaviors related to the development of overweight and obesity. OBJECTIVE: To study the relationships of times spent on viewing television, playing digital games and using computer to overweight among Finnish adolescents. DESIGN: Mailed cross-sectional survey. SUBJECTS: Nationally representative samples of 14-, 16-, and 18-y-old (N=6515, response rate 70%) in 2001. METHODS: Overweight and obesity were assessed by body mass index (BMI). The respondents reported times spent daily on viewing television, playing digital games (video, computer and console games) and using computer (for e-mail, writing and surfing). Data on timing of biological maturation, intensity of weekly physical activity and family's socio economic status were taken into account in the statistical analyses. RESULTS: Increased times spent on viewing television and using computer were associated with increased prevalence of overweight (obesity inclusive) among girls: compared to girls viewing television <1 h daily, the adjusted odds ratio (OR) for being overweight was 1.4 when spending 1-3 h, and 2.0 when spending > or =4 h daily on viewing television. In girls using computer > or =1 h daily, the OR for being overweight was 1.5 compared to girls using computer <1 h daily. The results were similar in boys, although not statistically significant. Time spent on playing digital games was not associated with overweight. CONCLUSION: Overweight was associated with using information and communication technology (ICT), but only with certain forms of ICT. Increased use of ICT may be one factor explaining the increased prevalence of overweight and obesity at the population level, at least in girls. Playing digital games was not related to overweight, perhaps by virtue of game playing being less sedentary or related to a different lifestyle than viewing television and using computer.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Burden of disease attributable to obesity and overweight in Korea.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the burden of disease attributable to overweight and obesity using disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) in Korea. RESEARCH METHODS: Firstly, overweight and obesity-related diseases and their relative risk (RR) were selected by the systematic review. Secondly, population-attributable fractions (PAFs) were computed by using the formula including RR and the prevalence of exposure (Pe) of overweight and obesity. Thirdly, DALYs of overweight and obesity-related diseases in Korea were estimated. Finally, the attributable burden (AB) of diseases due to overweight and obesity was calculated as the sum of the products from multiplying DALYs of overweight and obesity-related diseases by their PAFs. RESULTS: The disease burden attributable to overweight was 827.1 person years (PYs) overall, 732.6 for men, 922.9 for women per 100,000 persons. The disease burden attributable to obesity was 260.0 PYs overall, 144.2 for men, 377.3 for women. Diabetes attributable to overweight and obesity accounts for highest burden among other diseases in both genders. The disease burden attributable to overweight was 3.2 times higher than that attributable to obesity. CONCLUSION: Most proportion of disease burden attributable to high body mass index (BMI) occurred among those with only moderately raised levels such as overweight, not the extremes such as obesity. It suggests that population-based, public health intervention rather than high-risk group-focused strategies are more effective to reduce the burden of disease attributable to overweight and obesity in Korea.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935.

BACKGROUND: Overweight in adults is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. In contrast, the long-term effect of overweight in adolescence on morbidity and mortality is not known. METHODS: We studied the relation between overweight and morbidity and mortality in 508 lean or overweight adolescents 13 to 18 years old who participated in the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. Overweight adolescents were defined as those with a body-mass index that on two occasions was greater than the 75th percentile in subjects of the same age and sex in a large national survey. Lean adolescents were defined as those with a body-mass index between the 25th and 50th percentiles. Subjects who were still alive were interviewed in 1988 to obtain information about their medical history, weight, functional capacity, and other risk factors. For those who had died, information on the cause of death was obtained from death certificates. RESULTS: Overweight in adolescent subjects was associated with an increased risk of mortality from all causes and disease-specific mortality among men, but not among women. The relative risks among men were 1.8 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.2 to 2.7; P = 0.004) for mortality from all causes and 2.3 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.4 to 4.1; P = 0.002) for mortality from coronary heart disease. The risk of morbidity from coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis was increased among men and women who had been overweight in adolescence. The risk of colorectal cancer and gout was increased among men and the risk of arthritis was increased among women who had been overweight in adolescence. Overweight in adolescence was a more powerful predictor of these risks than overweight in adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight in adolescence predicted a broad range of adverse health effects that were independent of adult weight after 55 years of follow-up.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1993

Social and economic consequences of overweight in adolescence and young adulthood.

BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Overweight in adolescents may have deleterious effects on their subsequent self-esteem, social and economic characteristics, and physical health. We studied the relation between overweight and subsequent educational attainment, marital status, household income, and self-esteem in a nationally representative sample of 10,039 randomly selected young people who were 16 to 24 years old in 1981. Follow-up data were obtained in 1988 for 65 to 79 percent of the original cohort, depending on the variable studied. The characteristics of the subjects who had been overweight in 1981 were compared with those for young people with asthma, musculoskeletal abnormalities, and other chronic health conditions. Overweight was defined as a body-mass index above the 95th percentile for age and sex. RESULTS: In 1981, 370 of the subjects were overweight. Seven years later, women who had been overweight had completed fewer years of school (0.3 year less; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.1 to 0.6; P = 0.009), were less likely to be married (20 percent less likely; 95 percent confidence interval, 13 to 27 percent; P < 0.001), had lower household incomes ($6,710 less per year; 95 percent confidence interval, $3,942 to $9,478; P < 0.001), and had higher rates of household poverty (10 percent higher; 95 percent confidence interval, 4 to 16 percent; P < 0.001) than the women who had not been overweight, independent of their base-line socioeconomic status and aptitude-test scores. Men who had been overweight were less likely to be married (11 percent less likely; 95 percent confidence interval, 3 to 18 percent; P = 0.005). In contrast, people with the other chronic conditions we studied did not differ in these ways from the nonoverweight subjects. We found no evidence of an effect of overweight on self-esteem. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight during adolescence has important social and economic consequences, which are greater than those of many other chronic physical conditions. Discrimination against overweight persons may account for these results.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Overweight in Southeastern Pennsylvania children: 2002 household health survey data.

OBJECTIVE: The authors sought to estimate the prevalence of overweight and risk for overweight and to examine relationships between body mass index (BMI) and socioeconomic and demographic characteristics among children in Philadelphia and four neighboring counties. METHODS: Data from the 2002 Philadelphia Health Management Corporation Household Health Survey was examined. RESULTS: Of 2,621 children aged 2 to 17 years, 36% were overweight or at risk for overweight and 23% were overweight. Prevalences of overweight and at risk for overweight were higher among younger children than among older children and adolescents. African American, Hispanic, and Asian children had higher prevalences than non-Hispanic white children. Childhood overweight was positively associated with household poverty, lower educational status, and higher BMI in the adult survey respondents. CONCLUSIONS: The observed inverse relationship between age and the prevalence of overweight among Southeastern Pennsylvania children and adolescents differs from previous reports of the prevalence of overweight in samples of U.S. children and adolescents. The high prevalence of overweight among children aged 2 to 9 years should focus attention on improving nutrition and increasing opportunities for physical activity and exercise among preschool and early school-age children.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Why don't low-income mothers worry about their preschoolers being overweight?

CONTEXT: Mothers are in an important position to prevent obesity in their children by shaping early diet and activity patterns. However, many mothers of overweight preschool children are not worried about their child's weight. OBJECTIVE: To explore mothers' perceptions about how they determine when a child is overweight, why children become overweight, and what barriers exist to preventing or managing childhood obesity. DESIGN: Three focus groups with 6 participants in each. Participant comments were transcribed and analyzed. Themes were coded independently by the 6 authors who then agreed on common themes. SETTING: A clinic of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children in Cincinnati, Ohio. PARTICIPANTS: Eighteen low-income mothers (13 black, 5 white) of preschool children (mean age of 44 months) who were at-risk for later obesity. All but 1 mother had a body mass index (BMI) >/=25 kg/m(2), and 12 mothers had a BMI >/=30 kg/m(2). All but 1 child had a BMI >/=85th percentile for age and sex, and 7 had a BMI >/=95th percentile. Results. Mothers did not define overweight or obese in their children according to how height and weight measurements were plotted on the standard growth charts used by health professionals. Instead, mothers were more likely to consider being teased about weight or developing limitations in physical activity as indicators of their child being overweight. Children were not believed to be overweight if they were active and had a healthy diet and/or a good appetite. Mothers described overweight children as thick or solid. Mothers believed that an inherited tendency to be overweight was likely to be expressed in the child regardless of environmental factors. In trying to shape their children's eating, mothers believed that their control over the child's diet was challenged by other family members. If a child was hungry, despite having just eaten, it was emotionally difficult for mothers to deny additional food. CONCLUSIONS: Health professionals should not assume that defining overweight according to the growth charts has meaning for all mothers. Despite differing perceptions between mothers and health professionals about the definition of overweight, both groups agree that children should be physically active and have healthy diets. Health professionals may be more effective in preventing childhood obesity by focusing on these goals that they share with mothers, rather than on labeling children as overweight.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Incidence and remission rates of overweight among children aged 5 to 13 years in a district-wide school surveillance system.

OBJECTIVES: To monitor annual changes in weight status, we determined incidence and remission rates of overweight among school-aged children with longitudinal school-based surveillance. METHODS: We estimated 1-year changes in weight status among students enrolled in public schools in Cambridge, Mass. Physical education teachers measured height and weight annually. Adjusted odds ratios (ORs) were estimated via multivariate logistic regression, accounting for repeated observations of individual children across years. RESULTS: The 1-year incidence of overweight was 4%, and the remission rate was 15%. Among overweight children, 85% remained overweight at a 1-year follow-up, while 18% of children at risk for overweight became overweight. Overweight incidence rates were higher among children aged 7 and 8 years than among those aged 11 to 13 years (boys: OR=1.68; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.14, 2.47; girls: OR=1.86; 95% CI=1.25, 2.77). CONCLUSIONS: Both incidence and remission rates were higher among younger children. Children who were at risk for overweight were more likely to change their weight status than those who were already overweight. Our results support targeting overweight prevention efforts toward younger children and children at risk for overweight.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

Effects of being overweight.

Based on cross sectional data from a general population of 5,817 people aged 14 to 61, objective overweight is compared with perceived overweight, and information is provided on morbidity due to being overweight, and on what people are doing to try to lose weight. We found that 10 percent of this population are moderately overweight and 12 per cent are severely overweight (although 41 per cent perceive they are overweight). Being overweight is associated with poorer functional status (e.g., overweight is given as the main reason for functional limitations by 13 per cent of people with such limitations) and with considerable pain, worry, and restricted activity because of this condition (e.g., 88 per cent of people who believe they are overweight worry at least a little about it). Only about 7 per cent of those who perceive they are overweight are under a doctor's care to lose weight. If physicians wish to assume a larger role in caring for overweight people, the nature of their role must be carefully evaluated.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Effects of throwing overweight and underweight baseballs on throwing velocity and accuracy.

The purpose of this review is to determine how throwing overweight and underweight baseballs affects baseball throwing velocity and accuracy. Two studies examined how a warm-up with overweight baseballs affected throwing velocity and accuracy of 5 oz regulation baseballs. One of these studies showed significant increases in throwing velocity and accuracy, while the other study found no significant differences. Three training studies (6 to 12 weeks in duration) using overweight baseballs were conducted to determine how they affected ball accuracy while throwing regulation baseballs. No significant differences were found in any study. From these data it is concluded that warming up or training with overweight baseballs does not improve ball accuracy. Seven overweight and 4 underweight training studies (6 to 12 weeks in duration) were conducted to determine how throwing velocity of regulation baseballs was affected due to training with these overweight and underweight baseballs. The overweight baseballs ranged in weight from 5.25 to 17 oz, while the underweight baseballs were between 4 and 4.75 oz. Data from these training studies strongly support the practice of training with overweight and underweight baseballs to increase throwing velocity of regulation baseballs. Since no injuries were reported throughout the training studies, throwing overweight and underweight baseballs may not be more stressful to the throwing arm compared to throwing regulation baseballs. However, since currently there are no injury data related to throwing overweight and underweight baseballs, this should be the focus of subsequent studies. In addition, research should be initiated to determine whether throwing kinematics and kinetics are different between throwing regulation baseballs and throwing overweight and underweight baseballs.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Health implications of overweight and obesity in the United States.

The second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey found that 26% of U.S. adults, or about 34 million people aged 20 to 75 years, are overweight. The survey used a body mass index of 27.8 kg/m2 or greater for men and 27.3 or greater for women to define overweight. Prevalence of overweight increases with advancing age and is generally much higher among black women than among white women. Women below the poverty line have a much higher prevalence of overweight between ages 25 and 55 years than women above the poverty line. Multivariate analysis indicates that for women race and poverty status are independent predictors of overweight. Hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes are commoner in overweight persons than in persons who are not overweight. The relative risk of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and diabetes is greater in overweight adults aged 20 to 45 years than it is in overweight persons aged 45 to 75 years. This observation is consonant with mortality data, suggesting that being overweight during early adult life is more dangerous than a similar degree of overweight in later adult life.

Adipose Tissue↗