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PubMed2004

Dog noise as a risk factor for hearing loss among police dog handlers.

AIM: To determine the sources of noise exposure among police dog handlers and to examine whether these levels might lead to noise-induced hearing loss. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study at four Royal Air Force bases using a noise survey, a postal questionnaire and medical record review. The noise survey was conducted following task analysis. We surveyed police dog handlers and a comparison group of police who had never been dog handlers, using a postal questionnaire on noise exposures and confounders. Audiometric and otological data were extracted from medical records. RESULTS: The noise survey revealed significant exposures due to dogs, travelling in vans and aircraft noise during foot patrol. The overall response rate to the questionnaire was 56% (29 police dog handlers, 24 police officers). Five subjects (9.4%) had age-corrected hearing loss exceeding 10 dB, averaged over the 4 and 6 kHz frequencies, affecting the left ear only, but there were no differences between dog handlers and controls. CONCLUSION: Although the measured noise exposures of police dog handlers did not exceed current legal limits, the noise levels at times are such that the proposed Physical Agents (Noise) Directive has implications for employers who use dogs for security purposes.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Back pain in a large Canadian police force.

STUDY DESIGN: A survey of a random sample of 1002 members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to determine their experience with low back pain. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of low back pain among Royal Canadian Mounted Police members and to assess the validity of the perception that the patrol car seat and the duty belt are causing a higher rate of low back pain among members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police than in the general population. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Low back pain is a common problem throughout the industrialized world, with reported 1-year prevalence rates between 25% and 62%. Prevalence of low back pain among people who drive motor vehicles for a significant part of the day appears higher than in the general population. Among police officers, 1-year prevalence rates of between 44% and 62% have been reported. METHODS: A computerized database of 14,897 serving regular members was used to identify a sample of officers on active duty. A low back pain questionnaire was mailed to each selected member, eliciting information regarding their experience with low back pain, their exposure to known and putative risk factors, and their opinions about the contribution of these potential risk factors. The respondents to the questionnaire remained anonymous. RESULTS: The response rate was 80%. The prevalence of "chronic or recurring low back pain since joining the force" was 54.9%, which is comparable with the lifetime prevalence reported for the general population. Of those who reported having back problems, only 8.5% had such problems before joining the force. Seventy-six percent who had low back pain reported having a problem within the last year, giving an overall 1-year prevalence of 41.8%, which is comparable with that for the general population. The a priori assumption that driving or wearing a duty belt contributed to the problem was shared by most police officers surveyed. However, only about half of the members who replied drove for more than half the working day or wore the duty belt. These members had the same prevalence of low back pain as those who did not drive or wear the duty belt. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of low back pain in this police force is comparable with that in the general population, and driving a patrol car or wearing the duty belt does not appear to influence the prevalence rate in this population.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Impact of police and legislative initiatives on urban gunshot wound admissions.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to assess the effects of local and state anti-crime initiatives on the number of gunshot wound admissions to a level 1 trauma center. METHODS: A retrospective time series analysis of gunshot wound admissions from July 1, 1990 to July 30, 1999 was performed at a level 1 trauma center. The gunshot wound admissions were divided into four subgroups: assault, suicide, accident, and police-involved gunshot wounds. The effects of the following three initiatives were studied: (1) the Three Strikes law; (2) a local police initiative, the Violent Crime Suppression Unit; and (3) the Use a Gun and You're Done law. The periods that corresponded with each intervention were defined, and the rates of gunshot wound-related admissions for all causes after each intervention were compared. RESULTS: During the study, 1,499 patients were admitted with gunshot wounds. These admissions involved 1,220 assaults, 196 suicide attempts, 52 accidents, and 31 police-involved cases. Over the defined periods, an average of 13.7 gunshot wound admissions (range, 7.9-15.5) occurred, most of which were assaults (mean, 10.8; range, 5.5-13). There were no differences across the periods for gunshot wound admissions among three of the subgroups: suicide, accidental, and police-related gunshot wounds. However, the assault subgroup showed a significant decrease across all the periods and a statistically significant decrease after enactment of the Use a Gun and You're Done law (p < 0.005). When control was used for an increasing number of police officers, however, the association was no longer statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Gunshot wound admissions attributable to assault at a level 1 trauma center decreased during a period when several local and state initiatives focused on decreasing violent crime were enacted. The causes likely were multifunctional, and included increasing the number of police officers as well as the enactment of new laws.

California↗

PubMed1996

PTSD in relation to dissociation in traumatized police officers.

OBJECTIVE: The assumed relationship between dissociation and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was examined. METHOD: From a group of police officers who had experienced a traumatic event, the authors assessed the chronic dissociative symptoms of 42 police officers with PTSD, 50 police officers with partial PTSD, and 50 police officers who experienced no PTSD symptoms after the trauma. RESULTS: Police officers with PTSD, as well as those with partial PTSD, exhibited significantly more dissociative symptoms than police officers without PTSD symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The study shows that it is quite probable that PTSD and partial PTSD predict dissociation and not the other way around.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Crisis intervention team training for police officers responding to mental disturbance calls.

OBJECTIVES: In recognition of the fact that police are often the first responders for individuals who are experiencing a mental illness crisis, police departments nationally are incorporating specialized training for officers in collaboration with local mental health systems. This study examined police dispatch data before and after implementation of a crisis intervention team (CIT) program to assess the effect of the training on officers' disposition of calls. METHODS: The authors analyzed police dispatch logs for two years before and four years after implementation of the CIT program in Akron, Ohio, to determine monthly average rates of mental disturbance calls compared with the overall rate of calls to the police, disposition of mental disturbance calls by time and training, and the effects of techniques on voluntariness of disposition. RESULTS: Since the training program was implemented, there has been an increase in the number and proportion of calls involving possible mental illness, an increased rate of transport by CIT-trained officers of persons experiencing mental illness crises to emergency treatment facilities, an increase in transport on a voluntary status, and no significant changes in the rate of arrests by time or training. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that a CIT partnership between the police department, the mental health system, consumers of services, and their family members can help in efforts to assist persons who are experiencing a mental illness crisis to gain access to the treatment system, where such individuals most often are best served.

Communication↗

PubMed2000

Assessing the impact of administrative policy on use of deadly force by on- and off-duty police.

Deadly force research typically does not distinguish between shootings by on-duty and off-duty police. This article uses Philadelphia police shooting data from two time periods (1970-1978 and 1987-1992) and a unique quasi-experimental design to examine the comparative effects upon on- and off-duty police shootings of an administrative policy that limited police shooting discretion but that did not address questions of police weapons carrying and access to firearms. The article draws important distinctions between when to shoot and carry administrative policies and considers their impact on deadly force by on- and off-duty police.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Police attitudes toward domestic violence offenders.

Police attitudes are important in facilitating a sense of safety and comfort in women seeking justice-system support for protection from partner violence. This study examined police attitudes toward sanctions and treatment for domestic violence offenders compared with other violent and nonviolent offenders. In addition, police attitudes toward domestic violence offenders who do and do not use substances were examined. Officers from one city police department (n = 315) participated in a survey. Results indicate there is a trend toward attitudes that treatment, rather than sanctions, was more appropriate for domestic violence offenders. In addition, officers rated the use of sanctions higher for domestic violence offenders who abuse alcohol or drugs compared with domestic violence offenders who did not abuse alcohol or drugs. Understanding police attitudes toward domestic violence offenders may have implications for police training and victim services in facilitating the use of the justice system in protecting women from partner violence.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Officer friendly and the tough cop:gays and lesbians navigate homophobia and policing.

Despite attempts to expand social diversity, policing is still dominated by a white, masculine, heterosexual ethos. As a consequence, employment of lesbians and gay men as police officers may be especially threatening to members of this occupation. Within the context of potential hostility and homophobia, nontraditional officers must negotiate their contradictory presence on the police force. This paper investigates that negotiation. Using the Bem Sex Role Inventory and open-ended survey data from a sample of "out" and "closeted" gay and lesbian police officers, we ask how gays and lesbians manage their images as "good cops" in the face of gender norm violations associated with their sexual orientation. Our findings indicate that masculinity and femininity do not hold together in a cohesive, dichotomous manner for these officers. Instead, other characteristics that enhance policing are emphasized to support their occupational competence. These officers see themselves as "good cops." The gendered/sexualized character of their self-perceptions appears to matter less than the context of the job, more than for a comparison sample of heterosexual police officers. We conclude that although gay and lesbian officers see their sexuality as an occupational asset, they are also likely to work harder to prove themselves as crime fighters.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Help-seeking in the Norwegian Police Service.

A traditional view is that police officers possess negative attitudes toward seeking professional help. However, few empirical studies have investigated help-seeking behaviour in police services. This study aimed to investigate help-seeking behaviour, gender differences, and the relationship to self-reported physical and mental health problems in the Norwegian police service. Comparisons were made with a sample of the general Norwegian population. A comprehensive nationwide questionnaire survey of 3,272 Norwegian police officers at all hierarchical levels was conducted; measurements included help-seeking, Subjective Health Complaint questionnaire (SHC), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Paykel's Suicidal Feelings in the General Population, alcohol and medication to cope, self reported health, and sick leave. Female police officers contacted nearly all health professionals more than their male counterparts. Help-seeking was largely unaffected by age. Less than 10% of those reporting anxiety or depressive symptoms or serious suicidal ideation had contacted a psychologist or psychiatrist. A chiropractor had been contacted by 14.5% of the sample during the past year, compared with 7% in the general Norwegian population. Anxiety symptoms were associated with seeking a chiropractor (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.3-2.7). The strongest association with contacting a psychologist or psychiatrist was medication used to cope (OR 5.8, 95% CI 3.0-11.1). The first nationwide study on help-seeking behaviour showed that police officers sought help among specialists in private practice, physiotherapists and chiropractors relatively often. However, they contacted a psychologist or psychiatrist rarely, even when reporting serious suicidal ideation.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Suicide among German federal and state police officers.

Most American studies report higher police officer suicide rates in comparison to age-matched populations. In the Federal Republic of Germany police organizations are comprised of Federal Customs, 16 state police, and 2 federal police organizations. A survey carried out in 1997 yielded higher suicide rates for police officers also in Germany in comparison to rates of the comparable age group (25 per 100,000 vs 20 per 100,000). The most commonly used suicide method was firearms (66-71%). Hypotheses often attribute this high suicidality among police officers to higher work stress than in other professions. Other hypotheses implicate individual variables such as psychiatric illnesses, alcoholism, and interpersonal and marital problems. A transactional model might explain these different views.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Burden of alcohol use in the Uganda Police in Kampala District.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol dependence is one of the leading causes of the global burden of disease. Among members of the Uganda Police Force, alcohol dependence has been a major contributor of poor mental health, poor work output and forced retirement. OBJECTIVE: This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of alcohol dependence and associated psychosocial problems in the Uganda Police Force in Kampala District. METHODS OF STUDY: A sample of police officers selected by systematic sampling strategy from two large barracks in Kampala District participated. A semi-structured questionnaire designed to elicit information on the perceived impact of alcohol use was used. Prevalence rate was derived from ICD-10 criteria for alcohol dependence, and psychosocial problems in alcohol dependence. RESULTS: Twenty respondents (19.2%) met criteria for alcohol use disorder, 26.0% met criteria for alcohol use problems and 9.6% reported that their health was poor. Alcohol use disorder or problems were significantly associated with lack of job satisfaction, poor health, problems in implementing personal plans, disciplinary problems, inability to save from personal earnings, debts, and absenteeism from work. CONCLUSION: One in five police officers met criteria for alcohol use disorder while one in four experienced psychosocial problems related to alcohol use. The results suggest serious implications for the quality of services provided by the Uganda Police. There is a need to establish measures to provide services for those affected, and a further need to establish preventative measures against alcohol dependence in the police force.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Policing guns and youth violence.

To combat the epidemic of youth gun violence in the 1980s and 1990s, law enforcement agencies across the United States adopted a variety of innovative strategies. This article presents case studies of eight cities' efforts to police gun crime. Some cities emphasized police-citizen partnerships to address youth violence, whereas others focused on aggressive enforcement against youth suspected of even minor criminal activity. Still others attempted to change youth behavior through "soft" strategies built on alternatives to arrest. Finally, some cities used a combination of approaches. Key findings discussed in this article include: Law enforcement agencies that emphasized police-citizen cooperation benefited from a more positive image and sense of legitimacy in the community, which may have enhanced their efforts to fight crime. Aggressive law enforcement strategies may have contributed to a decline in youth gun violence, but they also may have cost police legitimacy in minority communities where residents felt that the tactics were unfair or racially motivated. Approaches that emphasize nonarrest alternatives and problem-solving strategies offer an intriguing but unproven vision for addressing youth gun violence. None of the initiatives presented in the case studies has been shown conclusively to reduce youth gun crime over the long term. The author suggests that policing alone cannot contain youth gun violence, but by carefully balancing enforcement with community collaboration, police departments can help shift social norms that contribute to youth gun violence.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

The challenge of selecting tomorrow's police officers from Generations X and Y.

Demands on police officers in the past 30 years have grown dramatically with the increasing threats to social order and personal security. Selection of police officers has always been difficult, but now with the increasing demand and complexity of police work, along with the candidates applying from Generation X and even Generation Y, the selection process has become more critical. The personal characteristics attributed to Generation X--and in the future, to Generation Y--should be factored into the selection process to ensure that those individuals selected as police officers will be able to cope with what has been described as the impossible mandate of police work in a free society. Background information on the X and Y generations is imperative for psychiatrists working with police departments and other law enforcement agencies. This article will explore these areas and construct a paradigm selection process.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Airborne levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: 32P-postlabeling DNA adducts and micronuclei in white blood cells from traffic police workers and urban residents.

An epidemiologic study on 94 traffic police officers exposed to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and 52 age-matched urban residents working in confined spaces considered as referent subjects without occupational exposure to PAH was conducted to characterize individual exposure to benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), benzo(b)-, and benzo(k)fluoranthene (BbF and BkF) and the occurrence of DNA adducts and micronuclei in white blood cells (WBC). The study's findings indicated that mean concentrations of PAH in the city air were 10 to 30 times higher among the traffic police officers compared with referent subjects (4.55 +/- 3.44 ng/m3 and 0.15 +/- 0.30 ng/m3 of BaP among police officers and referents, respectively). 32P-postlabeling DNA adducts in WBC obtained from police officers (1.48 +/- 1.35 RAL/10(8)) were significantly higher than in referent subjects (1.01 +/- 0.63 RAL/10(8), P = 0.007), suggesting a possible role of exposure to airborne PAH in the DNA damage. The frequency of micronuclei was significantly increased (P = 0.02) in referent subjects (4.49 +/- 2.0% cells) compared with police officers (3.75 +/- 1.65% cells) due to the large proportion of females in the former group. Comparison of the mean micronuclei frequencies among 82 male police officers (3.73 +/- 1.6% cells) and referents (4.03 +/- 1.61% cells) failed to reveal a statistically significant difference (P = 0.38). Our findings support the evidence of a noxious effect of the exposure to airborne PAH found in large cities on the occurrence of DNA adducts in WBC, whereas there seems to be no effect on the cytogenetic risk assessed as micronuclei frequency.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Police attitudes toward mental illness and psychiatric patients in Israel.

The attitude of the public toward mental illness and toward psychiatric patients raises a serious and sensitive issue that indirectly affects the development of community mental health services. Most citizens feel that there is an association between mental illness and dangerous or violent behavior. Studies undertaken among police personnel in the 1970s demonstrated that their attitudes were similar to those of the general public in Israel. The objective of the present study was to assess the attitudes of police officers toward mental illness and psychiatric patients by means of a self-report questionnaire. Ninety-three policemen from five police stations within the Y. Abarbanel Mental Health Center catchment area participated in the study. All were young males (average age 32.1 years) and 75 percent had a high school education or higher. More than half (54.5%) had personally known a psychiatric patient in the past, and 20.4 percent of the police personnel graded mental illness as the severest form of disease in medicine. A minority (14.3%) of policemen agreed with the statement: "A psychiatric hospital should be fenced and manned by guards." One-third did not know whether psychiatric patients are dangerous. We conclude that training of police officers is called for to effect changes in their misconceptions about psychiatric patients. Psychoeducation may lead to improved handling by the police of incidents involving the mentally ill.

Adult↗

PubMed1986

Mortality in police and firefighters in New Jersey.

A proportionate mortality study of police and firefighters in New Jersey was conducted using the records of a comprehensive retirement system. Three reference populations were used: U.S. general population, New Jersey general population, and police as a reference group for the firefighters. Overall neither group differed from the New Jersey male population in the cause of death. Analyses by latency showed an increase in skin cancer and cirrhosis in firefighters and cirrhosis in police. With increased time from first employment, an inverse association was found between heart disease and time of first exposure. This was reflected in statistically significant increased proportionate mortality rates (PMR) for arteriosclerotic heart disease (ASHD) (ICD 410-414) for both working police (PMR = 1.15) and firefighters (PMR = 1.2). Retired police and firefighters had PMRs of 0.96 and 0.98, respectively. Firefighters had a significant increase in nonmalignant respiratory disease (PMR = 1.98) and leukemia (PMR = 2.76) when the police were used as a reference group. Potential causes of the above findings are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

Juvenile offenders' diversion potential as a function of police perceptions.

The study concerns the relationship of police perception of arrested male juveniles to potential police diversion (operationally defined by perception of juveniles as deserving lenient treatment). Arresting officers (n = 102) from 20 police stations provided structured reports on 174 juveniles, covering 27 questions that police considered important in encounters with juvenile offenders. Of 16 independent variables suitable for analysis, only 4 were significantly related to diversion potential when other variables were held constant (multiple regression analysis). Only 26% of the potential's variance was accounted for by the 16 variables jointly. Factor analysis yielded six latent dimensions (orthogonal factors) of police perception of juvenile offenders: offensive behavior, conformity of appearance, delinquent background, nonserious offense, favorable impression, single offender. All dimensions except "delinquent background" were significantly related to diversion potential, and an empirical rationale could be found for three of these relationships. The findings are discussed critically. It is concluded that the importance of interpersonal variables in police encounters with juveniles might be less than has been suggested in the literature.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Worker policing without genetic conflicts in a clonal ant.

In group-living animals, mutual policing to suppress reproduction is an important mechanism in the resolution of conflict between selfish group members and the group as a whole. In societies of bees, ants, and wasps, policing against the production of males by other workers is expected when egg laying by workers decreases the average inclusive fitness of individual group members. This may result (i) from the relatedness of workers being lower to worker than to queen-derived males or (ii) from a lowered overall colony efficiency. Whereas good evidence exists for policing behavior caused by genetic conflicts, policing caused by efficiency factors has not been demonstrated. We investigated the regulation of reproduction in the ant Platythyrea punctata, a species in which colonies are clones because workers are capable of producing female offspring by thelytokous parthenogenesis. Reproductive conflicts resulting from differences in genetic relatedness are therefore not expected, but uncontrolled reproduction by all workers could lead to the destruction of sociality. Here we show that worker policing by aggressive attacks against additionally reproducing workers keeps the number of reproducing workers low. Furthermore, through experimental manipulation of the number of brood items per colony, we show that worker policing can enhance group efficiency.

Aggression↗