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PubMed2026

Post-Breakup Instagram Surveillance: Attachment Style, Personality Traits, and Breakup Distress as Predictors.

The end of a romantic relationship is one of the most emotionally challenging life events. Social media platforms such as Instagram enable users to monitor an ex-partner, a behavior known as Interpersonal Electronic Surveillance (IES), which may complicate coping. This study examined associations with retrospectively reported IES on Instagram during the first 3 weeks post-breakup, focusing on attachment, personality, and breakup-related emotional distress. Previous studies suggest that higher anxious attachment and emotional distress are related to increased monitoring behaviors on Facebook. The present research extends this approach to Instagram, a popular platform among Generation Z, and additionally examines personality factors. Data from N = 232 participants (aged 18-27 years; 84 percent women), who had experienced a breakup within the past year and followed their ex-partner on Instagram, were collected using a cross-sectional online questionnaire. The survey included standardized measures and self-constructed items. Hierarchical regression analyses including breakup-related variables, mediation analyses, and independent-samples t-tests were conducted. Due to extremely low internal consistency, Agreeableness was excluded from inferential analyses. The analyses indicated that Extraversion was the only personality trait directly associated with increased IES. Attachment styles showed no direct associations after emotional distress was included in the model. Emotional distress emerged as the most consistent factor associated with IES, showing patterns consistent with indirect associations involving Neuroticism and anxious attachment, suggesting a central role of emotional distress in post-breakup surveillance behavior. These findings highlight digital monitoring as a potentially maladaptive coping strategy and underscore the importance of addressing social media use in post-breakup adjustment.

Humans↗

PubMed2000

Genetic and environmental influences on a measure of infant attachment security.

A twin study of infant attachment security at age 24 months was conducted on archival data for a sample of 99 MZ pairs and 108 DZ pairs from the Louisville Twin Study. MZ concordance for attachment was 62.6%, which was significantly greater than the DZ concordance of 44.4%. Concordances were transformed into polychoric correlations, and LISREL was used to conduct a quantitative genetic analysis of the data. Results indicated that 25% of the variability in attachment was attributable to genetic factors, and the remaining 75% was attributable to non-shared environmental effects. No evidence was found for a contribution from shared environmental influences to attachment security. Possible concerns about the validity of twin methodology are addressed and various interpretations of the results are presented.

Anxiety, Separation↗

PubMed1985

Patterns of attachment in two- and three-year-olds in normal families and families with parental depression.

Patterns of attachment were examined in normal and depressed mothers. Mother's diagnosis (bipolar, major unipolar, or minor depression, or no psychiatric disorder), self-reported current mood states, and affective behavior in interaction with the child were considered. A modified version of Ainsworth and Wittig's Strange Situation was used to assess attachment. Insecure (A, C, and A/C patterns) attachments were more common among children of mothers with a major depression (bipolar or unipolar) than among children of mothers with minor depression or among children of normal mothers. Insecure attachment was more frequent in children of mothers with bipolar depression than in children of mothers with unipolar depression. A/C attachments were associated with histories of most severe depression in the mother. In families in which mothers were depressed, depression in the father did not increase the likelihood of anxious attachment between mother and child. However, if mothers with a major affective disorder were without a husband in the household, risk of an insecure mother-child attachment was significantly increased. The mothers' expressed emotions (positive vs. negative) in interaction with their children in situations other than the Strange Situation, and independent of diagnosis, predicted patterns of attachment: mothers of insecurely attached children expressed more negative and less positive emotion. Mothers' self-reports of moods on the days they were observed were unrelated to attachment. Results are discussed in terms of the transmission of social and emotional disorders in relation to mothers' affective functioning.

Bipolar Disorder↗

PubMed1981

Attachment and early maltreatment.

Attachment outcomes of 31 maltreatment cases (extreme neglect or abuse) selected from a total poverty sample of 267 high-risk mothers were compared at 12 and 18 months to a subsample of 33 cases with a history of excellent care. In accordance with the Bowlby-Ainsworth hypothesis, the maltreatment group was characterized by a low proportion of secure attachment (Ainsworth's group B) at 12 months (38% compared to 75% in the excellent care group and 55% in the remaining total sample); however, differences at 18 months were not significant. Specifically, 50% of the cases with a history of neglect were in Ainsworth's group C (anxious/resistant attachment) at 12 months, compared to usual reports of approximately 10% and compared to 21% in the total poverty sample. Patterns of attachment between 12 and 18 months remained stable for the mother-infant pairs in the excellent care group, however, 52% of the mistreated infants changed classifications. For the neglect subgroup there was considerable movement toward Ainsworth's group A (anxious/avoidant attachment) at 18 months and some movement toward group B. An examination of the case histories of mother-infant pairs indicated that changes in attachment between 12 and 18 months were related to changing life events, support from family, and out-of-home care. These findings are highly tentative as were the findings which suggested that secure attachment within the maltreatment group was associated with the presence of a supportive family member, less chaotic life-style, and, in some instances, a more robust infant.

Child Abuse↗

PubMed1993

Attachment and emotion regulation during mother-teen problem solving: a control theory analysis.

We present a control theory analysis of adolescents' attachment strategies in the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI). In Study 1, Q-sort prototypes for secure/anxious and deactivating/hyperactivating strategies were used to differentiate between Main and Goldwyn's AAI classifications. In Study 2, we examined how AAI strategies were associated with emotion regulation during mother-teen problem solving. 4 aspects of mother-teen problem solving (dysfunctional anger, support/validation, avoidance of problem solving, and maternal dominance) were used to predict teens' AAI strategies. Teens with secure strategies engaged in problem-solving discussions characterized by less dysfunctional anger and less avoidance of problem solving. In addition, attachment security showed a curvilinear relation with maternal dominance, indicating that secure teens maintained balanced assertiveness with their mothers. Teens with deactivating strategies engaged in problem-solving interactions characterized by higher levels of maternal dominance and dysfunctional anger. The contribution of attachment strategies to teens' autonomy and to transformations in mother-teen relationships is discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Proposal for a structured assessment of parenting based on attachment theory: theoretical background, description and initial clinical experience.

This paper proposes a structured clinical assessment of parenting and illustrates its use within child psychiatry practice. The aim was to develop a structured instrument based on current theoretical knowledge which was simple enough to be clinically viable while being precise and repeatable enough to enable quantification and research. Use is made of inpatient and daypatient resources but the assessment could be modified for outpatient practice. The assessment takes a "diagnostic" approach; concentrating on factors that have been shown in research to be good predictors of parenting dysfunction. These include parental personality, current mental state and degree of current social stress and support (including quality of marital relationship). Additionally, information regarding the adult's representation of early attachment relationships is elicited using the Adult Attachment Interview. Independent assessments of the child and the parent/child interaction are made. Initial clinical experience with this instrument is described and practical and theoretical issues raised by its use are explored.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Attachment style, childhood adversity, and behavioral risk among young men who have sex with men.

PURPOSE: To examine relationships among childhood adversity, attachment style (one's core beliefs regarding the self and others), and the following risk behaviors and contexts among young men who have sex with men (YMSM): homelessness, daily substance use, participation in sex work, involvement in the criminal justice system, and being out of school or work. METHODS: Using a targeted sampling approach, we recruited 569 YMSM aged 17-28 years from natural venues in New York City including bars, clubs, parks, and bus stations. Youth completed a structured interview assessing lifetime and current risk and protective contexts and behavior. Data were analyzed using univariate and multivariate statistical methods, including hierarchical logistic regression. RESULTS: After controlling for demographic characteristics and childhood adversity, YMSM with a fearful attachment style were more likely to have been homeless (OR 2.93, 95% CI 1.65-5.18), to have participated in sex work (OR 2.35, 95% CI 1.44-3.85), to use substances daily (OR 2.79, 95% CI 1.29-6.03), to have been involved in the criminal justice system (OR 2.04, 95% CI 1.38-3.01), and to be out of school/work (OR 2.47, 95% CI 1.47-4.15). Three subgroups were particularly vulnerable: YMSM who identified as heterosexual, or bisexual, and/or transgender. CONCLUSIONS: A fearful attachment style contributes to some YMSM remaining outside of the protective systems of family, school, and work, and is associated with risky contexts where they are less likely to encounter prosocial peers and adults. Further, it is associated with risk behavior. Although gay-identified youth are generally found to have poor outcomes when compared with the general population of adolescents, in the present report, YMSM who identified as heterosexual were at particular risk. Attachment theory can guide interventions by informing how individuals experience relationships and manage developmental transitions.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Professional caretakers as attachment figures in day care centers for children with intellectual disability and behavior problems.

Do children with intellectual disabilities (ID) show attachment behavior towards their professional caretaker? Five children, varying in chronological age, developmental age and DSM-diagnosis, were observed in a day care setting. Their attachment behavior was described by means of the Attachment Q-sort. Attachment behavior varied within and between children, irrespective of their diagnosis. This data indicates that professional caretakers are potential attachment figures for children with ID. Attachment introduces certain considerations for day care for children with ID, as well as opportunities for prevention and intervention. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Gender nonconformity, childhood rejection, and adult attachment: a study of gay men.

Several childhood factors are reported to be associated with a homosexual orientation in men, including gender nonconformity and rejection by parents and peers. The purpose of this study was to explore the associations between these childhood factors and attachment anxiety (the tendency to experience anxiety regarding potential loss and rejection in close relationships) and attachment avoidance (the tendency to avoid versus seek out closeness in relationships) in gay and bisexual men. A community sample of 191 gay and bisexual men completed questionnaires and an attachment interview. Gender nonconformity was significantly associated with paternal, maternal, and peer rejection in childhood. In addition, paternal and peer rejection, but not maternal rejection, independently predicted attachment anxiety. Peer rejection and, to a lesser extent, paternal rejection mediated the association between gender nonconformity and attachment anxiety. Finally, peer rejection mediated the association between paternal rejection and attachment avoidance. Findings highlight the role of gender nonconformity in contributing to childhood rejection and the importance of peer relationships in the socialization of gay men.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Infant attachment strategies, infant mental lag, and maternal depressive symptoms: predictors of internalizing and externalizing problems at age 7.

The predictive relations between assessments in infancy and parent- and teacher-reported behavior problems at age 7 were investigated within a low-income sample. Infancy assessments indexed family adversity, parent-infant interaction at home, infant attachment, infant anger-distress at home, gender, and cognitive functioning. Among children at age 7 identified by teachers as highly externalizing, 83% were both disorganized in their attachment behavior in infancy and below the national mean in mental development scores at 18 months, compared with 13% of nonexternalizing children. Avoidant attachment behavior in infancy was associated with later internalizing symptoms rather than with externalizing symptoms. The behavior problem data reported by mother suggested the possibility of attachment-related biases in maternal report data. The results indicate that child mental lag in the context of a disorganized attachment relationship constitutes 1 early step on the pathway to school-age externalizing behavior.

Child↗

PubMed2000

Marital behavior and the security of preschooler-parent attachment relationships.

Longitudinal and concurrent relations among positive and negative marital behaviors in 2 contexts and preschoolers' security of attachment were examined for 53 families. At 6 months postpartum, couples were observed in their homes during couple discussion and family play. At 3 years, parents completed the Attachment Q-Set (E. Waters, 1987); marital and parenting behavior was also observed. Interparental hostility during family play at 6 months predicted less secure preschooler-mother attachment. Greater marital conflict at 3 years was associated with less security with mother and father, whereas positive marital engagement at 3 years was associated with more secure child-father attachment. Mothers' parenting partially explained the linkages between marital behavior and child-mother attachment. These results highlight the impact of positive and negative marital behaviors on children's abilities to use their parents as a secure base.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMed2002

The influence of adult attachment styles on the association between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms.

This study tested the hypothesis that attachment styles moderate the relationship between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms among husbands and wives. In a sample of 91 married couples, ratings of the anxious-ambivalent attachment style moderated the relationship between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms for both husbands and wives. Additionally, ratings of the secure attachment style moderated the relationship between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms for wives, with a trend for husbands. These findings suggest a relationship between insecurity and a predisposition to depressive symptoms in marital relationships.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Parental attachment, parental control, and early development of alcohol use: a longitudinal study.

The authors explored the predictive influence of both parental attachment and parental control on early onset of alcohol consumption in adolescence by use of a longitudinal sample of 1,012 young adolescents. Whether the relationship between parental control and adolescents' drinking is moderated by parental attachment was also examined. Consistent with other studies, attachment and strict control were cross-sectionally related to adolescents' alcohol use at all 3 measurements. However, the longitudinal results of structural equation modeling analyses suggest that a good attachment relationship between parent and child does not prevent adolescents from drinking. In addition, strict control was related to lower engagement in alcohol use. Furthermore, with regard to the moderating effect, parental attachment did not moderate longitudinally the association between parental control and an early development of alcohol use. Implications for further research are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

The importance of shared environment in infant-father attachment: a behavioral genetic study of the attachment q-sort.

In this first behavior genetic study on infant-father attachment, we estimated genetic and environmental influences on infant-father attachment behaviors and on temperamental dependency, both assessed with the Attachment Q-Sort (AQS; B. E. Vaughn & E. Waters, 1990; E. Waters, 1995). Mothers of mono- and dizygotic twins (N = 56 pairs) sorted the AQS with a focus on the infant's behaviors in the presence of the father. Genetic modeling showed that attachment was largely explained by shared environmental (59%) and unique environmental (41%) factors. For dependency, genetic factors explained 66% of the variance, and unique environmental factors including measurement error explained 34%. Attachment to father appears to be, to a significant degree, a function of the environment that twins share.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Associations among maternal depressive symptomatology, state of mind and parent and child behaviors: implications for attachment-based interventions.

Associations among maternal depressive symptomatology, maternal state of mind with regard to attachment, and mother and child behaviors were examined in the treatment groups of an attachment-oriented intervention for primiparous women at high risk for parenting difficulties. The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) was completed by 48 intervention and 62 control subjects when their children were 19 months old and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Inventory (CES-D) and parent-child laboratory tasks were completed by the same subjects when their children were 24 months old. In the control group, preoccupied tendencies were repeatedly associated with poor outcome; in the intervention group coherence of mind was associated with positive outcome. Maternal depression tended to be associated with hostility in the intervention group. Results suggest that maternal state of mind may exert powerful effects on parenting behavior and that an attachment-oriented intervention may influence these associations, particularly among preoccupied subjects. Results also demonstrated potential benefits of using AAI scales in addition to the traditional categories.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Stability and fluctuation in adult attachment style over a 6-year period.

The present study investigates stability of adult attachment style and concurrent covariation between attachment security and coping and well-being within a 6-year longitudinal-sequential study, with a sample ranging from late adolescence to late adulthood. The findings indicate that attachment style was relatively stable over the six-year period; nevertheless, it was characterized more by fluidity than by stability. Fluctuation in attachment security showed a negative concurrent covariation with defensive coping and depressive symptoms, but a positive covariation with integrative coping and self-perceived well-being. At any point when participants were better copers and reported a better state of well-being (than their own average baseline), they were also more secure (than their own average baseline). An age effect in attachment change was also found. Over time, older individuals became more secure and more dismissing, but less preoccupied than young people.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2006

Stalking as paranoid attachment: a typological and dynamic model.

Stalking encompasses a wide range of behavioral patterns, risk factors, interpersonal dynamics, and dangerousness. To account for these diverse phenomena, we propose that stalking behavior is best conceptualized by a dynamic interaction of attachment styles and psychodynamic phenomena. This paper articulates a model that explains stalking behavior within the framework of attachment theory. Four prototypical configurations of stalkers and their victims are developed. Each configuration is discussed in terms of a pattern of internal representations, affective constellations, combinations of aggression and narcissism, and potential for future violence. The four configurations proposed here are maintained through stalkers' over ideational linkage fantasies and projective identifications, which range from shame-prone and needy idealization to malevolent torment of the victim. Our model arrays erotomanic, jealous, and persecutory attachments along a continuum of increasingly paranoid and pathological identifications. We argue that these prototypical attachment configurations provide a theoretically driven means of differentiating phases of stalking, and as such provide useful leads in the empirical study and clinical assessment, treatment, and management of stalkers.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Depression, adult attachment, and recollections of parental caring during childhood.

The onset and course of depressive symptoms are influenced by a variety of interpersonal factors. Attachment theory provides a developmental framework for understanding the relationship between depressive symptoms and insecure attachment to one's parents and current romantic partner. The present study examined attachment theory for understanding depression and marital adjustment among 84 psychiatric inpatients diagnosed with major depressive disorder. Participants completed a diagnostic interview and self-report measures of depressive symptoms, adult attachment, marital adjustment, and recollections of childhood relationships with parents. Avoidant (but not anxious) adult attachment mediated the link between current depressive symptoms and patients' recollections of relationships with opposite-sex parents. Although nearly three fourths of the current sample of depressed psychiatric inpatients acknowledged the presence of marital problems, the negative correlation between depressive symptoms and marital adjustment did not reach statistical significance. Attachment theory may aid therapeutic approaches to depression within the context of marriage and other long-term romantic relationships.

Adaptation, Psychological↗