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PubMed1991

The effects of high-energy feeding on energy balance and growth in infants with congenital heart disease and failure to thrive.

Failure to thrive (FTT) in infants with congenital heart disease (CHD) can be attributed to their low energy intakes and high resting energy expenditures. Energy intake, energy expenditure and growth were studied in infants with CHD on normal formula feeds and then on feeds supplemented with glucose polymer to see whether supplementation improved energy retention and growth. Mean gross energy intakes increased by 31.7% on high-energy feeding and mean weight gain improved from 1.3 g/kg per d on control to 5.8 g/kg per d on high-energy feeding. Resting oxygen consumption (VO2 ml/kg per min) was not significantly different on the two feeding regimens, although respiratory quotient rose on high-energy feeding reflecting the increased carbohydrate intake. Estimated energy costs of growth on high-energy feeding fell within the previously described range for normal infants. It is recommended that infants with CHD known to be associated with FTT are fed on high-energy diets from the time of diagnosis in order to optimize growth.

Energy Metabolism↗
PubMed1999

Meal patterns in the SENECA study of nutrition and the elderly in Europe: assessment method and preliminary results on the role of the midday meal.

The paper discusses the assessment method for meal patterns in the course of the SENECA follow-up survey in 1993 in eight study towns across Europe and relates the percentage of energy intake at the midday meal to geographical latitude, total energy intake, energy intake as snacks, number of cooked meals, time spent at the main meal and intake of milk products, fat and leafy vegetables. A questionnaire for the assessment of meal patterns in western Europe has to include the possibility to assess more than three meals per day as well as a variety of meals at any time of the day. Meal structures vary between cooked meals, bread- or soup-based meals, but may also consist of spoon food, salads or fruit. Positive correlations were found between the percentage of energy intake at the midday meal and the number of cooked meals consumed per day, negative relations were found between the percentage of energy intake at the midday meal and the geographical latitude as well as total energy intake, energy intake in form of snacks and consumption of milk products.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Seasonal adjustments in body mass and thermogenesis in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus): the roles of short photoperiod and cold.

Seasonal adjustments in body mass and thermogenesis are important for the survival of small mammals during acclimatization in the temperate zone. To determine the contributions of short photoperiod and cold temperatures to seasonal changes in thermogenesis and body mass in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus), body mass, basal metabolic rate (BMR), nonshivering thermogenesis (NST), energy intake and energy digestibility were determined in seasonally acclimatized and laboratory acclimated animals. Body mass showed significant seasonal changes and decreased to a minimum in winter. Both BMR and NST increased in winter, and these changes were mimicked by exposing animals to short photoperiod or cold temperatures in the animal house. Digestible energy intake also increased significantly in winter, and also during exposure of housed animals to both short photoperiod and cold. These results suggest that Mongolian gerbils overcome winter thermoregulatory challenges by increasing energy intake and thermogenesis, and decreasing body mass to reduce total energy requirements. Short photoperiod and cold can serve as effective environmental cues during seasonal acclimatization.

Acclimatization↗
PubMed2005

Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) in obesity.

Obesity develops when there is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure, which can vary daily within and among individuals. High levels of energy intake and low levels of energy expenditure contribute to obesity, both together and independently. Energy expenditure from exercise associated with formal programs is encouraged for health and weight loss, but most individuals get very little formal exercise. Nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) is the cumulative energy expended through all other activities of daily living. It is highly variable among individuals; it is controlled by the environment and, possibly, neurobiologically. Mounting evidence suggests that NEAT is critical in determining a person's susceptibility to body fat deposition and is a major factor in human obesity. Recent research supported by the Minnesota Partnership for Biotechnology and Medical Genomics, a state-sponsored collaborative effort of the University of Minnesota and Mayo Clinic, is helping to define the complex brain regulation of NEAT and its role in obesity. This article reviews the evidence for NEAT and the impact of NEAT on obesity.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1997

Nutrient intake and weight development in children during chemotherapy for malignant disease.

The aim of the study was to assess the actual daily oral intake of energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate in relation to current recommendations in children with malignant disease during chemotherapy and to follow their weight development. Dietary information was collected for 21 consecutive days via 7-day recording in 14 children, aged 5-16 years. The number of days with loss of appetite, vomiting, and the number of days on anti-emetic drugs were also recorded. The average daily energy intake decreased from 91% of the recommendation of the Swedish Nutrition Recommendations (SNR), before chemotherapy to 69% after start of chemotherapy. During days spent at home, the energy intake increased to 77% of SNR. Twenty-two per cent of the total energy intake during the hospital days came from sucrose. On average, the children experienced loss of appetite on 50% of the days, vomiting on 12%, and received anti-emetic drugs on 38%. On admission, the average SD score for body weight for the whole group was -0.09. The mean weight reduction after 1 week was 0.19 SD (P = 0.05) compared to the admission weight. The weight reduction 6 weeks (n = 10) and 3 months (n = 13) after the start of chemotherapy was 0.10 SD and 0.37 SD (P = 0.04), respectively.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Caloric, but not macronutrient, compensation by humans for required-eating occasions with meals and snack varying in fat and carbohydrate.

Six subjects participated in a residential study assessing the effects of covert macronutrient and energy manipulations during three required-eating occasions (breakfast, lunch, and afternoon snack) on total macronutrient and energy intakes. Overall, energy content of the occasions varied between approximately 3000 and approximately 7000 kJ (approximately 700 and approximately 1700 kcal) with the majority of the differential derived from either fat or carbohydrate (CHO). Each condition (high, medium, and low fat; high, medium, and low CHO; and no required eating) was examined for 2 d. Subjects compensated for the energy content of the required occasions such that only under the low-CHO condition (11,297 +/- 3314 kJ) was total daily energy intake lower than that observed in the absence of required occasions (13,297 +/- 1356 kJ). Only total energy intake under the high-fat condition (12,326 +/- 2548 kJ) was significantly different from its matched CHO condition (high-CHO condition: 14,665 +/- 2686 kJ). In contrast to the clear evidence for caloric compensation, there were no differential effects of condition on macronutrient intake, ie, there was no macronutrient compensation.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Relative validation of a pre-coded food diary among children, under-reporting varies with reporting day and time of the day.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to validate intake of energy, macro- and micronutrients assessed from pre-coded food diaries (PFDs) by using weighed records (WRs) as the reference method among a group of Norwegian 9-year-olds. We also examined how under-reporters (UR) differed from acceptable reporters (AR) according to the energy intake during the 4-day recording period and energy intake distribution during the day. SUBJECTS AND DESIGN: One hundred 9-year-olds, 45 girls and 55 boys, were recruited to complete a 4-day record with a PFD followed 3 days later with a 4-day WR. RESULTS: There were no differences between energy and nutrient intake from the two recording methods among boys, but girls reported significantly higher intakes with PFD compared with WR. The median Spearman correlation coefficient between PFD and WR for energy and nutrients was 0.43 for girls and 0.49 for boys. Twelve participants were classified as UR with the PDF method. Energy percentages from macronutrients were not significantly different between UR and AR with the PFD method. UR had significantly lower energy intake in the last two recording days and from 1000 to 2200 hours during the day compared to AR. CONCLUSIONS: The PFD method is promising as a tool for assessing food intake in large surveys among children. The present study indicates that the PFD gives more valid data for boys than girls according to the group intake and ranking of nutrient intake when WR is the reference method. However, UR seemed to develop a study fatigue during the day and during the recording period. Increased awareness about the tendency of study fatigue can lead to more specific instructions on how participants can handle the problem.

Child↗
PubMed1999

Regulation of body weight in humans.

The mechanisms involved in body weight regulation in humans include genetic, physiological, and behavioral factors. Stability of body weight and body composition requires that energy intake matches energy expenditure and that nutrient balance is achieved. Human obesity is usually associated with high rates of energy expenditure. In adult individuals, protein and carbohydrate stores vary relatively little, whereas adipose tissue mass may change markedly. A feedback regulatory loop with three distinct steps has been recently identified in rodents: 1) a sensor that monitors the size of adipose tissue mass is represented by the amount of leptin synthesized by adipose cells (a protein encoded by the ob gene) which determines the plasma leptin levels; 2) hypothalamic centers, with specific leptin receptors, which receive and integrate the intensity of the signal; and 3) effector systems that influence the two determinants of energy balance, i.e., energy intake and energy expenditure. With the exception of a few very rare cases, the majority of obese human subjects have high plasma leptin levels that are related to the size of their adipose tissue mass. However, the expected regulatory responses (reduction in food intake and increase in energy expenditure) are not observed in obese individuals. Thus obese humans are resistant to the effect of endogenous leptin, despite unaltered hypothalamic leptin receptors. Whether defects in the leptin signaling cascade play a role in the development of human obesity is a field of great actual interest that needs further research. Present evidences suggest that genetic and environmental factors influence eating behavior of people prone to obesity and that diets that are high in fat or energy dense undermine body weight regulation by promoting an overconsumption of energy relative to need.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2005

Assessment of nutritional status in adult patients with cystic fibrosis: whole-body bioimpedance vs body mass index, skinfolds, and leg-to-leg bioimpedance.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether body mass index (BMI) or body fat percentage estimated from BMI, skinfolds, or leg-to-leg bioimpedance are good indicators of nutritional status in adult patients with cystic fibrosis. Body fat percentage measured by whole-body bioimpedance was used as the reference method. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study using four methods to estimate body fat percentage. All patients filled out a food frequency and a physical activity questionnaire for assessment of their habitual food intake and energy requirements, respectively. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Thirty-five adult patients (23 men/12 women) with cystic fibrosis, age range 18 to 46 years, were measured during their yearly visit at the outpatient clinic of the Cystic Fibrosis Center in Utrecht, the Netherlands. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Mean+/-standard deviation was calculated for all measurements and 95% confidence intervals for differences between methods. Bland-Altman plots were used to assess differences between the measures of body composition and Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the relationships between them, and between the energy requirements and the energy intakes. RESULTS: For men the whole-body body fat percentage reference was 14.1%+/-3.0, body fat percentage estimated from BMI was 15.8%+/-4.3, body fat percentage estimated from skinfolds was 8.6%+/-4.8, and body fat percentage estimated from leg-to-leg bioimpedance was 13.1%+/-4.9. For women the whole-body body fat percentage reference was 24.0%+/-5.9, body fat percentage estimated from BMI was 25.1%+/-4.0, body fat percentage estimated from skinfolds was 17.0%+/-4.8, and body fat percentage estimated from leg-to-leg bioimpedance was 25.0%+/-6.9. Body fat percentage estimated from BMI and body fat percentage estimated from skinfolds were significantly different from the reference value for body fat percentage (P <.05). The correlation coefficients between the reference body fat percentage and body fat percentage estimated from BMI, from skinfolds, and from leg-to-leg bioimpedance were all more than 0.72. In all but one patient, nutritional status was correctly assessed by BMI: those with a BMI less than 18.5 had body fat percentage less than 10% (men) or less than 20% (women). The mean energy intake of the men was 141% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance as proposed in European and Dutch guidelines. The mean energy intake of the women was 94% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance. CONCLUSIONS: A simple calculation of BMI is adequate to diagnose nutritional status in adult patients with cystic fibrosis. Bioimpedance measurements are only needed when nutritional therapy specifically focuses on lean body mass.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

Copper deficiency shifts energy substrate utilization from carbohydrate to fat and reduces fat mass in rats.

The influence of copper deficiency on energy metabolism and body composition was examined in rats. Weanling male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to two dietary treatments: copper-adequate (102.2 mumol/kg) and copper-deficient (9.0 mumol/kg). After 4 wk of treatment, rats were individually housed in metabolic cages within indirect calorimetry units for measurements of respiratory quotient to determine substrate utilization. Body composition was measured by total body electrical conductivity. Net energetic efficiency and fasting heat production were determined from regression analysis of metabolizable energy intake and energy retention (metabolizable energy intake-heat production). Rats were given free access to their respective diets for almost the entire study but were restricted to 70% of normal energy intake for 2 d to provide a range of energy intake required for the regression analysis. Energetic evaluations were determined for 12 d at normal intake and 2 d at a modest restriction (30%). Copper deficiency reduced the respiratory quotient values (0.85 to 0.80), carbohydrate utilization (7.9 to 5.2 g/d), energy retention [8.4 to -66.9 kJ/kg0.75.d)] and energy efficiency (97.8 to 87.7%). However, daily metabolizable energy intake and absolute fasting heat production were not altered. Reductions in final body weights (289 to 263 g), absolute fat mass (65.7 to 51.5 g) and proportion of body fat (22.7 to 19.6 g/100 g) were observed in copper-deficient rats compared with controls when all indirect calorimetry measurements were completed after 7 wk of treatment. Thus, copper deficiency increased utilization of fat as substrate for energy and reduced body fat mass in rats.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2006

Varying levels of food energy self-reporting are associated with between-group, but not within-subject, differences in food intake.

Energy intakes reported in diet diaries are frequently significantly below the energy requirements for a weight-stable individual. To investigate the impact of low energy reporting on between-group comparisons and within-subject analyses of eating behavior, we examined the baseline 7-d food-intake diaries submitted by 365 male and 564 female free-living normal adult humans. Participants were separated into 5 different groups, based upon their levels of energy reporting relative to their predicted basal metabolic rate: EI:BMR(est) = 0-0.99, 1.0-1.199, 1.2-1.399, 1.3-1.599, and > or =1.6. Between-group analysis revealed significant inverse relations among reporting level and body weight, BMI, cognitive restraint, positive relations with intake, meal size, and meal frequency. On the other hand, within-subject analyses suggested that, regardless of the level of energy reporting, equivalent relations are found among the amounts eaten in meals and the presence of other people, palatability, hunger, satiety, dietary energy density, contents of the stomach, time since the last meal, and time of day and correlations between daily intake and intake on subsequent days. The results suggest that comparing the intakes reported in diet diaries by different groups may be confounded by group differences in reporting levels. In contrast, the results clearly support the conclusion that diet diary data are suitable for assessing the relations between variables assessed within subjects irrespective of the level of reporting of energy intake.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Intake, digestibility, ruminal characteristics and rate of passage of orchardgrass diets fed to sheep.

Four orchardgrass diets ranging in cell wall content from 60 to 78% were fed to sheep, and relationships among intake, digestion, passage and ruminal measurements were determined. As cell wall concentration increased, dry matter intake, digestible energy intake, dry matter digestibility and excretion rate decreased, while cell wall intake rumen volume, rumen cell wall and retention time increased. Indigestible cell wall intake was similar with each diet. It appeared that as digestible energy intake decreased, the sheep attempted to adapt by increasing ruminal ingesta volume, increasing ruminal ingesta cell wall and decreasing rate of passage; as cell wall concentration increased, indigestible cell wall limitation was manifested in decreased levels of feed and energy intake. Rate and extent of digestion appeared to be related to indigestible cell wall and appeared to be key factors in the control of cell wall turnover and feed intake.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed1994

Exercise-induced suppression of appetite: effects on food intake and implications for energy balance.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of exercise on short term energy intake and to investigate the existence of exercise-induced anorexia. DESIGN: Two studies were conducted, both with three treatment conditions and employing a repeated measures design. SETTING: The Human Appetite Research Unit at Leeds University Psychology department. SUBJECTS: Twenty three healthy, lean male subjects (n = 11 and n = 12 respectively) were recruited from the student/staff population of Leeds University. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects were randomly assigned to a control, low intensity and high intensity exercise treatment in the first study and to a control, short duration and long duration exercise treatment (high intensity) in the second. Motivation to eat was measured by visual analogue rating scales and by the length of the time between the end of exercise and the volitional onset of eating. Energy and macronutrient intakes were measured by means of a free-selection test meal and by recorded intakes for the next 2 days. RESULTS: Subjective feelings of hunger were significantly suppressed during and after intense exercise sessions (P 0.01), but the suppression was short-lived. Exercise sessions had no significant effect on the total amount of food consumed in the test meal but intense exercise delayed the start of eating (P < 0.05). When energy intake was assessed relative to the energy expended during the exercise or control periods, only the long duration, high intensity session created a significant short-term negative energy balance (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: These studies indicate that exercise-induced anorexia can be characterized by a brief suppression of hunger, accompanied by a delay to the onset of eating. The temporal aspects of exercise-induced anorexia may best be measured by the resistance to begin eating rather than the amount of food consumed.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Determinants of zinc intake in low-income black and white pregnant women.

A prospective study was conducted to evaluate and compare the determinants of dietary zinc intake in black and white low-income pregnant women. The study population consisted of 1298 low-income women (70% Black, 30% White) who received prenatal care at University Hospital at the University of Alabama in Birmingham from 1985 to 1989. Various maternal characteristics were evaluated at the first prenatal visit. Two 24 h recalls were obtained at 18 and 30 wk of gestation to calculate the intakes of dietary zinc and other nutrients. Student's t test, chi2, Pearson correlation coefficients, and multiple regression analyses were used to compare and evaluate the determinants of zinc and other nutrient intakes in Black and White subjects. The mean prepregnancy body mass index and the mean intake of zinc, energy, and all the other nutrients except calcium were significantly higher in Black than in White subjects. There was a significant correlation between zinc and energy intake (r = 0.69, p = 0.001). Age, marital status, parity, socioeconomic status, smoking, and alcohol intake were not significant predictors of zinc or other nutrient intakes. After adjusting for energy intake, race was the only significant predictor of dietary zinc intake. Race and energy intake explained 24% of the variation in zinc intake. Results of this study indicate that after adjusting for other covariates, race and energy intakes are the only predictors of zinc intake in low-income pregnant women.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1993

Energy balance in highly trained female endurance runners.

Anecdotal and scientific reports have suggested that some female endurance athletes may have an inexplicable imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. We compared energy intake (EI) from food diaries (FD) with assessment of free-living energy expenditure (EE) using doubly labeled water (DLW) and a food attitude survey for 7 d in nine female distance runners. Daily EE via DLW (2990 +/- 415 kcal) was greater (P < 0.01) than daily EI via FD (2037 +/- 298 kcal): a 32% imbalance. Body weight did not change during the 7 d (day 1, 55.3 +/- 6.2 kg; day 7, 55.1 +/- 5.6 kg). A positive relationship was observed between EE and body weight (r = 0.82) while a negative correlation existed between EE vs EI (r = -0.83) and between EI vs body weight (r = -0.74). A negative correlation was observed between body weight and food attitude/body image (r = -78), i.e., the heavier women self-reported lower EI and also reported lower body image scores. These female athletes had a significant imbalance between EI and EE by our measures. Since body image and EI were related to body weight, the estimates of EI may be low due to underreporting particularly by the heavier athletes.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Energy utilization and growth in breast-fed and formula-fed infants measured prospectively during the first year of life.

This study is the first to report approximations of energy requirements for male and female breast-fed and formula-fed infants based on individual estimates of total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) and energy deposition derived from total body fat (TBF) and fat-free mass (FFM) gain as determined by total-body electrical conductivity. In 46 healthy, full-term infants the effect of > or = 4 mo of exclusive breast-feeding compared with formula feeding on macronutrient and energy intake, TDEE, energy deposition, and growth were investigated prospectively. Metabolizable energy intake (MEI) was assessed from macronutrient intake by test weighing (MEI-TW) and from the sum of TDEE and energy deposition (MEI-Pred). At 1-2, 2-4, 4-8, and 8-12 mo of age MEI-Pred averaged 431 +/- 38, 393 +/- 33, 372 +/- 33, and 355 +/- 21 kJ x kg(-1) x d(-1) for boys, and 401 +/- 59, 376 +/- 25, 334 +/- 33, and 326 +/- 17 kJ x kg(-1) x d(-1) for girls. No significant difference between breast-fed and formula-fed infants was found with respect to weight, length, head circumference, TBF, FFM, and TDEE at all ages, or for gain in length, weight, TBF, and FFM. MEI-TW was significantly different between feeding groups at 1-4 mo of age (formula-fed being greater than breast-fed, P < 0.005). This feeding effect, however, was not significant for MEI-Pred (MJ/d). MEI-TW differed from MEI-Pred only in breast-fed infants at 1-4 mo (P < 0.05 at 2-4 mo). The data from this study indicate that energy requirements in infants are lower than the recommendations in guidelines currently in use.

Age Factors↗