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PubMed2006

Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults.

CONTEXT: Cognitive training has been shown to improve cognitive abilities in older adults but the effects of cognitive training on everyday function have not been demonstrated. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of cognitive training on daily function and durability of training on cognitive abilities. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Five-year follow-up of a randomized controlled single-blind trial with 4 treatment groups. A volunteer sample of 2832 persons (mean age, 73.6 years; 26% black), living independently in 6 US cities, was recruited from senior housing, community centers, and hospitals and clinics. The study was conducted between April 1998 and December 2004. Five-year follow-up was completed in 67% of the sample. INTERVENTIONS: Ten-session training for memory (verbal episodic memory), reasoning (inductive reasoning), or speed of processing (visual search and identification); 4-session booster training at 11 and 35 months after training in a random sample of those who completed training. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reported and performance-based measures of daily function and cognitive abilities. RESULTS: The reasoning group reported significantly less difficulty in the instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) than the control group (effect size, 0.29; 99% confidence interval [CI], 0.03-0.55). Neither speed of processing training (effect size, 0.26; 99% CI, -0.002 to 0.51) nor memory training (effect size, 0.20; 99% CI, -0.06 to 0.46) had a significant effect on IADL. The booster training for the speed of processing group, but not for the other 2 groups, showed a significant effect on the performance-based functional measure of everyday speed of processing (effect size, 0.30; 99% CI, 0.08-0.52). No booster effects were seen for any of the groups for everyday problem-solving or self-reported difficulty in IADL. Each intervention maintained effects on its specific targeted cognitive ability through 5 years (memory: effect size, 0.23 [99% CI, 0.11-0.35]; reasoning: effect size, 0.26 [99% CI, 0.17-0.35]; speed of processing: effect size, 0.76 [99% CI, 0.62-0.90]). Booster training produced additional improvement with the reasoning intervention for reasoning performance (effect size, 0.28; 99% CI, 0.12-0.43) and the speed of processing intervention for speed of processing performance (effect size, 0.85; 99% CI, 0.61-1.09). CONCLUSIONS: Reasoning training resulted in less functional decline in self-reported IADL. Compared with the control group, cognitive training resulted in improved cognitive abilities specific to the abilities trained that continued 5 years after the initiation of the intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00298558.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed2003

Perceived quality of radiographic images after rapid processing of D- and F-speed direct-exposure intraoral x-ray films.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to compare the densitometric properties and perceived image quality of InSight (F-speed) and Ultra-Speed (D-speed) film radiographs processed with rapid chemistry. The effects of density, contrast, and film speed on perceived image quality were also studied. STUDY DESIGN: Images were made of a human cadaver phantom with exposures to achieve background densities approximating 1.5, 2.0, and 3.0. Films were processed in a radiographic darkroom by using Insta-Neg and Insta-Fix rapid chemistry as the manufacturer had recommended. Five endodontic residents independently analyzed images of varying density, speed, and contrast that were presented in a randomized manner. They were required to evaluate the perceived image quality of 5 specifically designated areas on the film, using a labeled photograph as a guide. These areas included root canal obturation, periodontal ligament space, dentinoenamel junction, and crestal bone height. In addition, they were also asked to assess the overall perceived image quality. Statistical analysis consisted of ordinal regression and 2-factor analysis of variance. RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were proved between F- and D-speed radiographs within the same density group. Higher density and higher contrast resulted in a statistically significant positive impact (P <.01) on the ranking for all 5 subjective determinations. Observers preferred the films exposed to a background density of 3.0 over those of a lower density (P <.01). CONCLUSIONS: InSight (F-speed film) can be used with rapid chemistry to ensure less radiation exposure to patients than is necessary with D-speed film. The observers participating in this study preferred radiographs from the 3.0 background density group to those from the 2.0 and 1.5 density groups.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2001

Cholinergic modulation of speed of early information processing: the effect of donepezil on inspection time.

RATIONALE: Selective cholinergic receptor agonists and antagonists have been shown to modulate inspection time, a measure of speed of early information processing. OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to examine the effects of globally increasing cholinergic function with the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor donepezil on inspection time. METHODS: Fourteen healthy subjects participated in a randomised double-blind, placebo controlled trial in which all subjects were tested under either acute placebo or donepezil (5 mg) treatment conditions. Testing was conducted pre- and 90 min post-drug administration. RESULTS: There was a significant decrease in inspection time in the donepezil condition compared to the placebo condition (F = 12.86; P < 0.01). DISCUSSION: The decrease or improvement of inspection time following donepezil administration is consistent with the role of the cholinergic system in modulating speed of information processing, and adds evidence that inspection time may serve as a physiological index of the integrity of the cholinergic system.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Exploring "fringe" consciousness: the subjective experience of perceptual fluency and its objective bases.

Perceptual fluency is the subjective experience of ease with which an incoming stimulus is processed. Although perceptual fluency is assessed by speed of processing, it remains unclear how objective speed is related to subjective experiences of fluency. We present evidence that speed at different stages of the perceptual process contributes to perceptual fluency. In an experiment, figure-ground contrast influenced detection of briefly presented words, but not their identification at longer exposure durations. Conversely, font in which the word was written influenced identification, but not detection. Both contrast and font influenced subjective fluency. These findings suggest that speed of processing at different stages condensed into a unified subjective experience of perceptual fluency.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

An in vitro comparison of 10 radiographic methods for working length estimation.

The aim of this in vitro study was to assess the efficacy of 10 currently available methods of producing radiographic images, two conventional and eight rapid, in working length estimation. Thirty extracted teeth comprising 42 root canals were mounted in blocks of poly(methylmethacrylate) and access cavities prepared. A size 15 Hedstrom file was inserted into each root canal and sealed into position. Each tooth was imaged by 10 methods: combinations of conventional (D- and E- speed) film processed with conventional manual chemistry of two proprietary brands of rapid processing chemistry (Westone Rapid Dental and Kodak 'Rapid Access'), Super X30 packet processed film, Hanshin Hi-Fi and Nix NF45-100 films processed using their respective manufacturers' monobath solutions, and the Sens-A-Ray digital X-ray system. Comparisons of length of file visible were made between the D-speed films (conventionally processed using Kodak chemistry) and the nine other radiographic methods. No significant differences in percentage length of file seen were found between D-speed film processed with conventional chemistry and E-speed film processed with the same chemistry or between D-speed film processed with with conventional chemistry and six of the rapid imaging systems studied. The percentage length of the file visible was significantly less for Sens-A-Ray (P=0.02) and for Nix NF45-100 film (P<0.005) when compared with D-speed film processed with conventional chemistry. This difference in file length is probably not of clinical importance for the Sens-A-Ray images but may be so for the Nix images.

Dental Pulp Cavity↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Reading comprehension skills of young adults with childhood diagnoses of dyslexia.

This study explores the contribution of cognitive processes to comprehension skills in adults who suffered from childhood developmental dyslexia (CD). The performance of adults with CD (ages 17 to 23), chronological age-matched (CA) adults, and reading level-matched (RL) children was compared on measures of phonological processing, naming speed, working memory (WM), general knowledge, vocabulary, and comprehension. The results showed that adults with CD scored lower on measures of phonological processing, naming speed, WM, general knowledge, and vocabulary when compared to CA readers but were comparable to RL children on the majority of process measures. Phonological processing, naming speed, vocabulary, general knowledge, and listening comprehension contributed independent variance to reading comprehension accuracy, whereas WM, intelligence, phonological processing, and listening comprehension contributed independent variance to comprehension fluency. Adults with CD scored lower than CA adults and higher than RL children on measures of lexical processing, WM, and listening comprehension when word recognition and intelligence were partialed from the analysis. In summary, constraints in phonological processing and naming speed mediate only some of the influence of high-order processes on reading comprehension. Furthermore, adults with CD experience difficulties in WM, listening comprehension, and vocabulary independently of their word recognition problems and intellectual ability.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

The relative contributions of ecstasy and cannabis to cognitive impairment.

RATIONALE: (+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphet-amine (MDMA; 'ecstasy'), a commonly used recreational drug, has typically been found to be related to poor cognitive function in humans. However, cannabis consumption may not have been adequately controlled for in these studies. OBJECTIVE: The present study was designed to further elucidate the relation between MDMA and cannabis in cognitive impairment. METHODS: Subjects who had used neither MDMA nor cannabis (controls; n=31), cannabis but not MDMA (cannabis users; n=18) and both MDMA and cannabis (MDMA/cannabis users; n=11) were compared on a battery of neuropsychological tests. RESULTS: The cannabis and MDMA/cannabis groups did not differ on any of the tests, whereas the combined cannabis and MDMA/cannabis groups performed more poorly than controls on tests of memory, learning, word fluency, speed of processing and manual dexterity. Further, apart from speed of processing where higher MDMA consumption predicted slower processing, covariate analysis revealed that the deficits were more closely related to cannabis than MDMA usage. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that cannabis is an important confound in studies of MDMA-related cognitive impairment, and that previously reported cognitive impairment in MDMA users may have been caused by coincident cannabis use.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Computerized neuropsychological assessment of cognitive functioning in children with epilepsy.

The value of a range of computer-aided tests in the neuropsychological assessment was investigated in 94-177 children with epilepsy, aged 8-18 years, compared with 68-161 controls in the same age group. Children from the age of 8 years could cope with rather complex tests in a wide range of functions: reaction time measurements, motor speed, information processing, and memory. The speed of performance tended to increase with age in both groups, with differences in information processing becoming apparent from the age of 12 years. The precise control of stimulus and response required to define the mainly minor differences between the epilepsy and control groups can only be fulfilled by computerized testing, which should undergo further refinement including voice and language recognition, followed by artificial intelligence.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Cognitive assessment of dyslexic students in higher education.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that the phonological deficits that characterise dyslexia persist into adulthood. There is a growing number of dyslexic students in higher education for whom sensitive diagnostic tests of their reading and reading related difficulties are required. AIMS: The main aim of this study was to compare the cognitive skills of dyslexic students with those of their non-dyslexic peers, and to ascertain the impact of cognitive difficulties on their study skills. A second aim was to produce guidelines for the assessment of dyslexia in higher education. SAMPLE: The performance of 23 dyslexic students was compared with that of a comparison group of 50 students from the same university who did not report a history of reading difficulty. METHOD: Participants completed standardised tests of IQ, reading, spelling and arithmetic and tests tapping phonological processing, verbal fluency and speed of processing. Their performance on a set of study-related tasks including proof reading and précis writing was also assessed and they completed the Brown ADD scales. RESULTS: Although dyslexic students did not differ in general cognitive ability from controls, they had deficits in reading and reading related phonological processes. Discriminant function analyses indicated that dyslexia in adulthood can be confirmed with 95% accuracy using only four tests: spelling, nonword reading, digit span and writing speed. CONCLUSIONS: The study highlighted the difficulties of dyslexic adults. The persisting difficulties of dyslexic students that affect their study skills need to be recognised by HE institutions so that appropriate support programmes can be put in place.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Measures of information processing in rapid automatized naming (RAN) and their relation to reading.

The letters, numbers, and objects subtests of the Rapid Automatized Naming Tests (RAN) were given to 50 first- and second-grade students. Student performance on the three RAN subtests were audiotaped and subjected to postacquisition processing to distinguish articulation and interarticulation pause times. This study investigated (1) the relations between the articulation and pause durations associated with the 50 stimuli of each RAN subtest and (2) the relations between the pause and articulation latencies of the three RAN subtests and reading. For both first- and second-grade students, pause and articulation times for RAN letters and objects were not found to be reliably related, in contrast to RAN numbers articulation and pause durations. RAN subtest pause durations were differentially related to reading; however, articulation was rarely related to reading. The RAN letters pause time was the most robust predictor of decoding and reading comprehension, consistently predicting all first- and second-grade measures. Analysis supported the view that reading is predicted by speed of processing associated with letters, not general processing speed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

An assessment of cognitive function and mood in chronic fatigue syndrome.

Data were gathered regarding the associates of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) with: (1) speed of cognitive processing, (2) motor speed, (3) ability to sustain attention, and (4) mood. Patients were given a brief neuropsychological test battery before and after double-blind treatment with terfenadine or placebo and completed a daily mood rating scale (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) during the study. CFS patients exhibited slower cognitive processing and motor speed and lower positive affect, as compared to data reported from previous studies of healthy subjects and other patient groups; however, CFS patients did not exhibit deficits in sustained attention in comparison to other groups. The CFS patients' ability to attend to verbal versus figural stimuli and mood ratings were different from those reported in studies of patients with depression. Because of methodological limitations, these findings are preliminary, but they encourage further assessment of cognitive dysfunction and mood in CFS.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Speed of feedforward and recurrent processing in multilayer networks of integrate-and-fire neurons.

The speed of processing in the visual cortical areas can be fast, with for example the latency of neuronal responses increasing by only approximately 10 ms per area in the ventral visual system sequence V1 to V2 to V4 to inferior temporal visual cortex. This has led to the suggestion that rapid visual processing can only be based on the feedforward connections between cortical areas. To test this idea, we investigated the dynamics of information retrieval in multiple layer networks using a four-stage feedforward network modelled with continuous dynamics with integrate-and-fire neurons, and associative synaptic connections between stages with a synaptic time constant of 10 ms. Through the implementation of continuous dynamics, we found latency differences in information retrieval of only 5 ms per layer when local excitation was absent and processing was purely feedforward. However, information latency differences increased significantly when non-associative local excitation was included. We also found that local recurrent excitation through associatively modified synapses can contribute significantly to processing in as little as 15 ms per layer, including the feedforward and local feedback processing. Moreover, and in contrast to purely feed-forward processing, the contribution of local recurrent feedback was useful and approximately this rapid even when retrieval was made difficult by noise. These findings suggest that cortical information processing can benefit from recurrent circuits when the allowed processing time per cortical area is at least 15 ms long.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1981

Early information processing deficit in schizophrenia. New findings using schizophrenic subgroups and manic control subjects.

In recent years, the idea that schizophrenia involves a primary disturbance of the higher cognitive (ie, cortical) thinking processes has been challenged by investigators who have shown that there may be a primary disturbance in schizophrenia in the early stages of information processing that occurs during the first few hundred milliseconds after the stimulus reaches the sense organs. Among the hypothesized early information processing deficits are deficiencies in iconic storage (a brief peripheral memory store) and slowness of processing from iconic storage to a more permanent memory system. Three experiments were conducted using tachistoscopically presented stimuli in order to evaluate these two stages of information processing (iconic storage and speed of processing) in schizophrenic and control subjects. Results converged in supporting the hypothesis, that independent of iconic storage and sensory registration, slow information processing is a relatively stable deficit of schizophrenic patients with a poor prognosis. The schizophrenic patients with a good prognosis had a similar deficit, which was reversible. Results are discussed as they relate to the early information processing deficit theories of schizophrenia.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

A comparison of Ektaspeed and Ultraspeed films using manual and automatic processing solutions.

Kodak's Ektaspeed (E) dental film is twice as fast as Ultraspeed (D) film and thereby significantly reduces radiation exposure to the patient. The film quality of the E film and D film was compared following processing with two manual and two automatic processing techniques. E-speed film processed manually or automatically produces diagnostically acceptable radiographs, with film densities within the recommended density limits commonly used in dentistry. High-contrast and low-contrast radiographs can be achieved by varying processing techniques.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2001

Word-processing training and retraining: effects of adult age, experience, and interface.

Novice (Experiment 1) and experienced (Experiment 2) young, middle-aged, and older adults learned a new word-processing application in keystrokes, menus, or menus-plus-icons interface conditions. Novices showed strong age differences in the time to complete the 3-day tutorial and in declarative and procedural tests of word-processing knowledge. Menus and menus-plus-icons were superior to keystrokes condition. though interface did not interact with age. Experienced users showed age-related slowing in learning rate but minimal age differences in test performance when retrained on a new word-processing program. Age and computer experience accounted for much of the variance in both learning time and word-processing performance; interface type, speed of processing, and spatial generation ability made additional contributions. Experience interacted with age to predict performance. Implications for training and retraining older workers are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span.

The authors investigated the distinctiveness and interrelationships among visuospatial and verbal memory processes in short-term, working, and long-term memories in 345 adults. Beginning in the 20s, a continuous, regular decline occurs for processing-intensive tasks (e.g., speed of processing, working memory, and long-term memory), whereas verbal knowledge increases across the life span. There is little differentiation in the cognitive architecture of memory across the life span. Visuospatial and verbal working memory are distinct but highly interrelated systems with domain-specific short-term memory subsystems. In contrast to recent neuroimaging data, there is little evidence for dedifferentiation of function at the behavioral level in old compared with young adults. The authors conclude that efforts to connect behavioral and brain data yield a more complete understanding of the aging mind.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Cognitive function in normal-weight, overweight, and obese older adults: an analysis of the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly cohort.

OBJECTIVES: To assess how elevated body mass index (BMI) affects cognitive function in elderly people. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Data for this cross-sectional study were taken from a multicenter randomized controlled trial, the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly trial. PARTICIPANTS: The analytic sample included 2,684 normal-weight, overweight, or obese subjects aged 65 to 94. MEASUREMENTS: Evaluation of cognitive abilities was performed in several domains: global cognition, memory, reasoning, and speed of processing. Cross-sectional association between body weight status and cognitive functions was analyzed using multiple linear regression. RESULTS: Overweight subjects had better performance on a reasoning task (beta=0.23, standard error (SE)=0.11, P=.04) and the Useful Field of View (UFOV) measure (beta=-39.46, SE=12.95, P=.002), a test of visuospatial speed of processing, after controlling for age, sex, race, years of education, intervention group, study site, and cardiovascular risk factors. Subjects with class I (BMI 30.0-34.9 kg/m2) and class II (BMI>35.0 kg/m2) obesity had better UFOV measure scores (beta=-38.98, SE=14.77, P=.008; beta=-35.75, SE=17.65, and P=.04, respectively) in the multivariate model than normal-weight subjects. The relationships between BMI and individual cognitive domains were nonlinear. CONCLUSION: Overweight participants had better cognitive performance in terms of reasoning and visuospatial speed of processing than normal-weight participants. Obesity was associated with better performance in visuospatial speed of processing than normal weight. The relationship between BMI and cognitive function should be studied prospectively.

Aged↗

PubMed1991

Cognitive effects of childhood leukemia therapy: a case for four specific deficits.

Prophylactic treatment of the central nervous system (CNS) with cranial irradiation and antineoplastic drugs has made childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) a survivable disease, but at the same time there have been many reports of iatrogenic effects, including deficits in cognitive functioning. Previous research suggests a particular effect on the Freedom from Distractibility factor of the WISC-R, memory, and attention. These particular abilities are tested in a group of 43 ALL survivors, with comparisons against solid tumor as well as sibling controls. The results indicate that four cognitive processes are affected by CNS prophylaxis for ALL: short-term memory, speed of processing, visuomotor coordination, and sequencing ability. Younger children have a more severe speed of processing deficit and children treated with a less rigorous protocol appear to be slightly less affected generally. The specific cognitive deficits found are related to neurological evidence on both theoretical and empirical grounds. Results suggest that children who have received CNS prophylaxis are able to learn, but may be slower to acquire new material and may benefit from bimodal presentation.

Antineoplastic Agents↗