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PubMed2000

[Snake as a symbol in medicine and pharmacy - a historical study].

The snake and snake venoms have stimulated the mind and imagination of humankind since the beginning of records about society. No animal has been more worshipped yet more cast out, more loved yet more despised than the snake. The essence of the fascination with fear of the snake lies within the creature's venom. Snakes have been used for worship, magic potions and, medicine, and they have been the symbol of love, health, disease, medicine, pharmacy, immortality, death and even wisdom. In the Sumer civilization (B.C. 2350-2150), designs with 2 snakes appeared. In Greek mythology (B.C. 2000-400), statues of Asclepius (God of Medicine), with "Caduceus" (made of two snakes and a staff), and his daughter Hygeia (God of Health), holding a snake and bowl, were created as symbols for medicine and health, respectively. A kind of Caduceus (1 snake and 1 staff) has been used as a symbol by the World Health Organization (WHO) and a snake and bowl as a symbol of pharmacies in Europe. Snakes have also been worshipped by old Indian peoples involved in Hinduism since 6-4th century B.C. In ancient Egypt, snake designs were used in hieroglyphs. In China, dried bodies of about 30 species of snakes are still using as Chinese medicines. In Japan, a painting of the symbol of "Genbu" (snake with tortoise) was found recently on the north wall of the Takamatsuzuka ancient tomb (7-8th century A.D.), however it is a symbol of a compass direction, and has probably less relation to medicine and pharmacy.

Animals↗
PubMed1965

DIFFRACTION.

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Eye↗
PubMed1994

Medicine through the ages.

History of medicine chronologically traces its development from guesswork about the actions of prehistoric man through the centuries to some aspects of the present day. The intellectual and cultural centres of the world have moved over time to time from place to place. In earlier times all knowledge was part of a conglomerate which one polymath might be able to master in a way no longer open to anyone now. The history of medicine through the ages has been presented here under different subdivisions, such as The Past, The Middle Ages, The Twelfth century Renaissance and Medicine and the Renaissance (Newton's century) etc.

History, Ancient↗
PubMed1987

The role of the hospital in the health policy of the German Social Democratic movement before World War I.

In this article, the author aims to contrast the traditional architecture-oriented history of hospitals with an empirical sociohistorical approach. The main topic discussed is the hospital's role in health policy as seen by German Social Democrats in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Social democratic hospital policy developed as a compromise between two extreme positions: the party theoretician's abstract ideals on the one side and the rank and file's pragmatic view on the other. Thus, the social history of the hospital can illustrate how, around the turn of the century, the political labor movement in Germany shifted from radical revolutionary aims to pragmatic social reform in everyday political practice. At the same time, the hospital underwent a fundamental social change from a charity institution to a municipal center of modern medical care. This implies that any static or one-sided interpretation of the hospital's history and sociology is inadequate: its social role constantly changes according to broader social change and different interests of social groups and organizations. As for the social history of medicine in general, modern medicine's development can not be adequately understood from the narrow perspective of medical institutions themselves. It has to be seen in the broader context of socioeconomic and sociocultural development.

Berlin↗
PubMed2002

[Medicines for towns and medicines for countrysides].

The regulations of the communities of apothecaries, in towns, ruled the conditions of the preparation and of the distribution of medicines to people. The application of these regulations was very strict and many conflicts occurred between apothecaries, grocers and surgeons. But, all that concerned people living in towns. What was it for countrysides? No medicine doctors, no apothecaries, a few surgeons! How could it be possible to cure countrymen? King's medicines, charitable ladies, ecclesiastics and pedlars were the solutions. Many books were redacted, during the XVIIth and the XVIIIth centuries, in order to help charitable persons to prepare easily non-expensive but efficient medicines for poor people.

France↗