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PubMed1998

Marschall Rhône-Poulenc Award Lecture. Nutritional and functional characteristics of whey proteins in food products.

Whey proteins are well known for their high nutritional value and versatile functional properties in food products. Estimates of the worldwide production of whey indicate that about 700,000 tonnes of true whey proteins are available as valuable food ingredients. Nutritional and functional characteristics of whey proteins are related to the structure and biological functions of these proteins. During recent decades, interest has grown in the nutritional efficacy of whey proteins in infant formula and in dietetic and health foods, using either native or predigested proteins. This paper focuses attention on the differences and similarities in composition of human and bovine milks with reference to infant formula. More desirable milk protein composition for consumption by humans is obtained by the addition of lactoferrin and more specific fractionations of proteins from bovine milk. Optimization of heating processes is important to minimize the destruction of milk components during fractionation and preservation processes. Some functional characteristics of whey proteins are discussed in relation to their properties for application in food products. Information obtained from functional characterization tests in model systems is more suitable to explain retroactively protein behavior in complex food systems than to predict functionality.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed2004

Polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk: an essential role in infant development.

The n-6 and n-3 fatty acids are essential dietary nutrients required for optimal growth and development, particularly of the brain and retina. Large amounts of the n-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is accumulated in the brain grey matter and the visual elements of the retina during development, and reduced DHA in these tissues can result in decreased visual and psychomotor development. Although the possible importance of differences in n-6 and n-3 fatty acids, particularly DHA, between human milk and infant formulas has been the subject of intense clinical research, the variability in the essential fatty acid content of milk within and among different populations of women and implications of this to infant growth and development have received much less attention. Considerable research has shown that the DHA content of the maternal diet is the most important determinant of the amount of DHA secreted in milk, and thus the dietary intake of the breastfed infant. The DHA content of human milk varies over 10-fold, being lowest in women with no intake of DHA and highest in women with high intakes of DHA, which is found predominantly in fatty fish. The requirement for n-3 fatty acids, and the balance of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids for optimal growth and development of the brain and retina, and long-term minimization of risk of chronic disease remains as one of the most important questions in infant nutrition. Dietary recommendations to modifying dietary fat with the aim of reducing risk of chronic disease, including obesity and cardiovascular disease in adults, need to consider that when followed by pregnant women, these recommendations can have a marked effect on the amount and balance of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids secreted in milk.

Brain↗
PubMed1999

Fully automated determination of vitamins A and E in milk-based products using a robotic station-HPLC arrangement.

An automated method, which includes an extraction procedure based on the AOAC official method of analysis for vitamins A and E in milk-based infant formula, was developed. The whole procedure is carried out automatically in a robotic station coupled to a liquid chromatograph with a UV detector for individual separation and quantification of the vitamins. Different commercial products (milk, infant formula and nutritional supplements) were analysed, and the data were compared with those obtained using the manual AOAC extraction method. Relative standard deviations using the automated method were 5.92 and 2.57% for vitamin A and E, respectively.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

The potential physiological significance of milk-borne hormonally active substances for the neonate.

This article reviews the presence and potential physiological significance of hormones and hormonally active substances (including growth factors) in human milk. Human milk has been found to contain several nonpeptide hormones and many peptide hormones and growth factors. In contrast to human breast milk, infant formulae lack some hormonally active peptides. There is little data concerning the effects of these agents on human neonates. Studies in immature experimental animals showing effects of orogastically administered hormones are summarized. The problems of supplementation of infant formula are discussed. Since hormones are present in the milk as a "cocktail" of potentially agonistic and antagonistic substances, one question is whether supplementation with a single agent would disturb this balance.

Child Development↗
PubMed2006

Factors associated with breastfeeding at six months postpartum in a group of Australian women.

BACKGROUND: Despite high levels of breastfeeding initiation in Australia, only 47 percent of women are breastfeeding (exclusively or partially) six months later, with marked differences between social groups. It is important to identify women who are at increased risk of early cessation of breastfeeding. METHODS: Data from the three arms of a randomised controlled trial were pooled and analysed as a cohort using logistic regression to identify which factors predicted women continuing to feed any breast milk at six months postpartum. The original trial included 981 primiparous women attending a public, tertiary, women's hospital in Melbourne, Australia in 1999-2001. The trial evaluated the effect of two mid-pregnancy educational interventions on breastfeeding initiation and duration. In the 889 women with six month outcomes available, neither intervention increased breastfeeding initiation nor duration compared to standard care. Independent variables were included in the predictive model based on the literature and discussion with peers and were each tested individually against the dependent variable (any breastfeeding at six months). RESULTS: Thirty-three independent variables of interest were identified, of which 25 qualified for inclusion in the preliminary regression model; 764 observations had complete data available. Factors remaining in the final model that were positively associated with breastfeeding any breast milk at six months were: a very strong desire to breastfeed; having been breastfed oneself as a baby; being born in an Asian country; and older maternal age. There was an increasing association with increasing age. Factors negatively associated with feeding any breast milk at six months were: a woman having no intention to breastfeed six months or more; smoking 20 or more cigarettes per day pre-pregnancy; not attending childbirth education; maternal obesity; having self-reported depression in the six months after birth; and the baby receiving infant formula while in hospital. CONCLUSION: In addition to the factors commonly reported as being associated with breastfeeding in previous work, this study found a negative association between breastfeeding outcomes and giving babies infant formula in hospital, a high maternal body mass index, and self-reported maternal depression or anxiety in the six months after the baby was born. Interventions that seek to increase breastfeeding should consider focusing on women who wish to breastfeed but are at high risk of early discontinuation.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1991

[Current aspects of infant nutrition].

It is still an important duty for pediatricians to inform parents about infant nutrition. An effort to insure successful breastfeeding in newborns is particularly necessary in order to avoid the introduction of foreign proteins, especially in high risk children. Allergy prevention is thus instigated early on. If necessary, a hypoallergenic milk may be used. Recently, there has been great concern that a high content of dioxine in breast milk exists, higher than in infant formulas. However, no evidence of toxicity has been noticed to date in breast fed children due to dioxine. Therefore, because of the many advantages, breast feeding should still be recommended for the first 4-6 months. In the last few years infant formulas have been adapted to simulate breastmilk by supplementation with taurine, carnitine and nucleotides. Most recently, Omega-3-fatty acids, which are important constituents of membrane phospholipids in the nervous system and the retina, have been added. In infant nutrition there is a trend nowadays toward unconventional forms of nutrition. An exclusive "lactoovo-vegetable" diet is able to meet all the requirements of a growing child. The critical components of a vegetarian diet are iron, calcium, vitamin B12 and vitamin D. These few examples demonstrate how important a nutrition-committee could be in elaborating basic information for the pediatrician, which would be useful in his daily work.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed1995

Artificial feeding: progresses and problems.

The introduction of infant formulas represents an important result in the field of the newborn and infant artificial feeding, reducing the gap with maternal feeding. In the last decade technological evolution allowed to obtain milk formulas which became more and more similar to human milk starting from cow's milk, thus obtaining a composition adequate to the digestive and nutritional requirements of the newborn and of the infant, starting from the model of the breast feeding (infant formulas). The major differences between human and cow's milk have been corrected by dilution, skimming, addition of carbohydrates, acidification. From an allergenic viewpoint, in a recent study, we observed that no significant differences can be observed in the development of atopic symptoms for children supplemented with different substances in the first 5 days of life or receiving cow's milk infant formulas in the first three months of life, compared to those breast fed. In the case of the development of intolerance or allergy to cow's milk proteins, the substitution of the cow's milk based formula with hydrolysed or soy formulas is required. Maternal feeding represents the best choice for the nutrition of the newborn; however, when it is not possible, milk formulas despite they still show marked differences with human milk, concerning both nutrients and defensive factors, allow to reach satisfactory results about both nutrition and health.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Daily chromium intake by infants in Belgium.

The chromium content of human breast milk, infant formulae, cow's milk and beikost was measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry following different digestion steps. No significant variation in chromium concentration during lactation was found. The mean concentration was 0.18 ng/ml. The daily chromium intake for Belgian infants of 3 months of age using different types of food was estimated. Exclusively breast fed infants consumed 0.1 microgram/day, while for infants fed cow's milk the intake was five times higher. The exclusive use of commercial infant formulas resulted in an intake of 2 up to 10 micrograms chromium a day.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

The impact of peripartum factors on the onset and duration of lactation.

Knowledge of peripartum indicators of those mother-infant pairs that are at increased risk of early failure of lactation may improve specific support of breastfeeding. Mode of delivery, labor complications, hyperbilirubinemia, milk intake and weight development were evaluated in healthy term infants in a hospital (n = 338). Delayed onset of lactation was observed in primiparae and in study participants with peripartum complications. The quantitative intake of human milk, assessed by test weighing 0-24 h and 24-48 h after the onset of lactation, was not significantly different between these groups. In addition, volume intake, weight gain and lactation success were tracked in 77 infants. Partial feeding of infant formula or an intake of <150 g of human milk per day 24-48 h after the onset of lactation was linked to weaning within 4 weeks. Ninety-one percent of the infants were exclusively breastfed at discharge; this value had declined to 49, 35 and 20% at 4, 12 and 20 weeks, respectively. Peripartum factors may contribute to early lactation failure; the long-term success of breastfeeding was predominantly determined outside the hospital.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Comparison between pre-thickened and home-thickened formulas in gastroesophageal reflux treatement].

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of a pre-thickened infant formula (Nan AR) with a conventional homemade formula in the reduction of regurgitation and vomiting in infants with gastroesophageal reflux.\par METHODS: A hundred children, under 12 months, not exclusively breast feeding, were select for the study. Forty-eight were treated with conventional formula with starch and 52 with pre-thickened infant formula.\par RESULTS: There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups in the improvement or cure of symptoms, each treatment having been effective.\par CONCLUSION: Thickened formulas, pre-thickened or home-thickened, have shown the same efficacy in the management of gastroesophageal reflux in children.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2005

Subchronic (13-week) oral toxicity study, preceded by an in utero exposure phase, with arachidonate-enriched triglyceride oil (SUNTGA40S) in rats.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are natural constituents found in human milk, fish oil or egg yolk. Until recently, infant formulas, though providing the essential fatty acid precursors for these PUFAs, did not contain preformed ARA or DHA. In this study the safety of SUNTGA40S as source of ARA, not only for use in infant formulas but also for nutritional products or food supplements, was evaluated in a subchronic study in Wistar rats, preceded by a 4-week pretreatment period of parental (F(0)) rats and exposure of the F(0) dams throughout mating, gestation and lactation. SUNTGA40S was administered at dietary levels of 0.5%, 1.5% and 5% (wt/wt) adjusted with corn oil to 5.76% added fat. An additional group received 3.65% (wt/wt) SUNTGA40S in conjunction with 2.11% (wt/wt) high DHA Tuna oil, providing an ARA:DHA ratio of 2.7:1. High-fat and low-fat controls received basal diet with or without 5.76% corn-oil supplement. The content, stability and homogeneous distribution of the test substances in the diet were confirmed under study conditions. The administration of SUNTGA40S, with or without DHA oil, did not affect health, growth, fertility or reproductive performance of the parental rats, nor pup characteristics (condition, weight gain, viability, number per litter or sex ratio). In the subchronic study with the offspring (F(1)) rats, no significant differences were found in condition, neurobehavioural observations, ophthalmoscopy, growth, urinalysis or macroscopic and microscopic findings between the test groups and the low-fat or the high-fat controls. In males of the 5% SUNTGA40S and the SUNTGA40S/DHA group, red blood cell counts, haemoglobin concentration and packed cell volume were lower and reticulocytes were slightly higher than in the high-fat and low-fat control groups. Cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipids in plasma were lower than in the high-fat controls in both sexes in the 5% SUNTGA40S and the SUNTGA40S/DHA group and (for triglycerides only) in the 1.5% SUNTGA group. Due to the administration of extra dietary fat, food intake and prothrombin time (males only) were lower and alkaline phosphatase activity was higher in all the high-fat groups, including the corn-oil controls, as compared to the low-fat controls. The weight of the spleen was higher in males of the 5% SUNTGA40S and the SUNTGA40S/DHA group compared to both the low-fat and the high-fat controls. The effects noted in this study at high dose levels of SUNTGA40S are consistent with previously reported physiological responses to dietary intake of high PUFA containing oils. The present results provide evidence that SUNTGA40S is a safe source of arachidonic acid. Except during lactation when the intake in dams doubled, 5% Suntga40S in the diet was equivalent to an overall intake of approximately 3g/kg body weight/day in F(0) and F(1) animals.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Total arsenic determination and speciation in infant food products by ion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry.

Health risk associated with dietary arsenic intake may be different for infants and adults. Seafood is the main contributor to arsenic intake for adults while terrestrial-based food is the primary source for infants. Processed infant food products such as rice-based cereals, mixed rice/formula cereals, milk-based infant formula, applesauce and puree of peaches, pears, carrots, sweet potatoes, green beans, and squash were evaluated for total and speciated arsenic content. Arsenic concentrations found in rice-based cereals (63-320 ng/g dry weight) were similar to those reported for raw rice. Results for the analysis of powdered infant formula by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) indicated a narrow and low arsenic concentration range (12 to 17 ng/g). Arsenic content in puree infant food products, including rice cereals, fruits, and vegetables, varies from <1 to 24 ng/g wet weight. Sample treatment with trifluoroacetic acid at 100 degrees C were an efficient and mild method for extraction of arsenic species present in different food matrixes as compared to alternative methods that included sonication and accelerated solvent extraction. Extraction recoveries from 94 to 128% were obtained when the summation of species was compared to total arsenic. The ion chromatography (IC)-ICP-MS method selected for arsenic speciation allowed for the quantitative determination of inorganic arsenic [As(III) + As(V)], dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), and methylarsonic acid (MMA). Inorganic arsenic and DMA are the main species found in rice-based and mixed rice/formula cereals, although traces of MMA were also detected. Inorganic arsenic was present in freeze-dried sweet potatoes, carrots, green beans, and peaches. MMA and DMA were not detected in these samples. Arsenic species in squash, pears, and applesauce were not detected above the method detection limit [5 ng/g dry weight for As(III), MMA, and DMA and 10 ng/g dry weight for As(V)].

Arsenic↗
PubMed2004

Bacteriological screening of expressed breast milk revealed a high rate of bacterial contamination in Chinese women.

A screening programme for expressed breast milk (EBM) revealed the alarming fact that our study group had the highest rate of contamination ever reported. The programme started in July 2002 and involved a group of Chinese women whose premature babies were in the neonatal intensive care unit. EBM was considered to be contaminated if there was any growth of pathogens, including Gram-negative bacteria, enterococci or Staphylococcus aureus, or if the total bacterial count was >10(5) cfu/mL. Of 59 samples from 23 mothers, 63% were contaminated. This high contamination rate could be due to the Chinese tradition of avoiding bathing for one month after childbirth. Previous studies have shown that feeding EBM rather than premature infant formula milk has advantages in terms of decreased incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis and neonatal sepsis. However, in this population, with such a high incidence of contaminated EBM, this may not be the case. Further studies to compare EBM with premature infant formula in this population are required.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Bioavailability of zinc and its binding to casein in milks and formulas.

Differences in zinc bioavailability among milk and formulas may be attributed to binding of zinc to various ligands. We determined the distribution of zinc and protein at different pHs and zinc and calcium concentrations. We used radiolabelled cow's milk, human milk, whey-predominant (WPF) and casein-predominant (CPF) infant formula. Lowering the pH changed zinc and protein distribution: zinc shifted from pellet (casein) to whey in cow's milk, from fat to whey in human milk and from fat and pellet to whey in formulas. Protein shifted from whey to pellet in human milk and from whey and pellet to fat in formulas. Increasing zinc and calcium concentrations shifted protein and zinc from pellet to whey for cow's milk and from whey and pellet to fat for the formulas. Protein distribution was not affected by calcium or zinc addition in human milk or CPF, while zinc shifted from whey to fat in human milk and from fat and pellet to whey in CPF. Zinc and calcium binding to isolated bovine or human casein increased with pH. At 500 mg/L of zinc, bovine casein bound 32.0 +/- 1.8 and human casein 10.0 +/- 0.9 mg zinc/g protein. At 500 mg/L of calcium, calcium was preferentially bound over zinc. Adding calcium and zinc resulted in 32.0 +/- 1.8 mg zinc/g bound to bovine casein and 17.0 +/- 0.8 mg zinc/g to human casein, while calcium binding was low. Suckling rat pups dosed with 65Zn labelled infant diets were killed and individual tissues were gamma counted. Lower zinc bioavailability was found for bovine milk at pH = 4.0 (%65Zn in liver = 18.7+1.4) when compared to WPF (22.8 +/- 1.6) or human milk (26.9 +/- 0.8). Lowering the pH further decreased zinc bioavailability from human milk, but not from cow's milk or WPF. Knowledge of the compounds binding minerals and trace elements in infant formulas is essential for optimizing zinc bioavailability.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Photoacoustic analysis of some milk products in ultraviolet and visible light.

The research reported here demonstrates the possibility of using photoacoustic spectroscopy for milk product analysis. Milk products including yogurt, cheese, and market milk were analyzed in the ultraviolet visible range. A strong absorption peak was present at 280 nm for all the products. Relationship was linear between relative protein concentration of skim milk and the photoacoustic signal at 280 nm (r2 greater than .99). Powdered milks, prepared from skim milk that had been subjected to different heat treatments before drying, were analyzed, and a second absorption peak at 335 nm was noted for milks subjected to high heat treatment prior to the drying process. This second absorption peak appears associated with Maillard reaction products. Analysis of stored UHT heat-treated milk and infant formulas showed a similar peak at 335 nm. The results suggest that the Maillard reaction is initiated during UHT treatment of milk, and associated pigments develop only during storage. The presence of the 335-nm band in the photoacoustic spectra of infant formulas is considered as the result of heat sterilization. It is anticipated that as photoacoustic spectroscopy becomes more common, its usefulness in the milk industry, in particular, and in food science, in general, will increase.

Acoustics↗
PubMed2002

The impact of breastmilk on infant and child health.

Infant-formula-feeding is inferior to breastfeeding because human milk provides specific and non-specific factors that have long-term consequences for early metabolism and the development of disease. Human milk enhances the immature immunologic system of the neonate and strengthens host defense mechanisms against infective and other foreign agents. Some mechanisms that explain active stimulation of the infant's immune system by breastfeeding are the bioactive factors in human milk such as hormones, growth factors and colony stimulating factors, as well as specific nutrients. Human milk may reduce the incidence of disease in infancy because mammalian evolution promotes a survival advantage. In addition, factors in milk promote gastrointestinal mucosal maturation, decrease the incidence of infection, alter gut microflora, and have immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory functions. Hormones, growth factors and cytokines in human milk may modulate the development of disease. Furthermore breastfed babies have reduced exposure to foreign dietary antigen. Following the termination of breastfeeding, there is evidence of ongoing protection against illness due to protective influences on the immune system mediated via human milk. Industry continues to attempt to improve infant formula with the addition of compounds such as fatty acids, oligosaccharides, nucleotides and lactoferrin. However, human milk has such far-reaching effects on the infant's immune response that optimal development depends heavily on its provision. All mothers should be encouraged and supported to continue breastfeeding for six months and beyond in order to promote the good health of their infants.

Bottle Feeding↗