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PubMed1995

Patterns of blood pressure variability in normotensive and hypertensive rats.

We sought patterns in mean arterial pressure of normotensive rats and alterations in chronic hypertension. Pressure was recorded for 4-6 days by telemetry from conscious, unrestrained rats and sampled digitally at 3 Hz, using normotensive Sprague-Dawley rats, spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), and Sprague-Dawley rats with two-kidney, one-clip renovascular hypertension (2K,1C). Time series analysis was by fast Fourier transform. Power spectra were divided into ultradian (frequencies > 1/day), circadian (frequency = 1/day), and infradian (frequencies < 1/day) domains. In the ultradian band from approximately 0.1 to 10 mHz the spectra were 1/f and without distinct peaks. The slopes were not significantly different among the groups and ranged from -1.03 to -1.61. At frequencies > 10 mHz, power continued to decrease but with a lower slope. A peak centered at approximately 100 mHz was present in both normotensive and 2K,1C rats but not in SHR. SHR had significantly more ultradian power than the others. The circadian rhythm modulated power in the ultradian band. Modulation was most prominent in normotensives, in which the ultradian activity was highest during the night when rats are active and lowest during the day; less pronounced in 2K,1C; and not detectable in SHR. There are regular patterns of blood pressure fluctuations and specific modifications to the patterns by different forms of hypertension.

Activity Cycles↗

PubMed1997

Circumventricular organs and fever.

We have examined the roles of three circumventricular organs, the area postrema, the subfornical organ, and the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT), as possible access points for circulating pyrogens to cause fever. In conscious, unrestrained rats prepared with telemetry devices, intracerebroventricular cannulas, and intravenous catheters, body temperature was monitored after intravenously administered lipopolysaccharide and, on a different occasion, after intracerebroventricular prostaglandin E1. Lipopolysaccharide-induced fevers in sham control lesioned rats were indistinguishable from those observed in animals with lesions of the area postrema, the OVLT, or the tissue immediately adjacent to this structure (peri-OVLT). In contrast, rats with lesions of the subfornical organ displayed reduced fevers. In none of the groups of lesioned animals were prostaglandin E1 fevers reduced. Thus lesions did not interfere with central thermogenic pathways responsive to prostaglandin. Our results indicate that subfornical organ neurons respond to circulating pyrogens and through their efferent projections activate central pathways involved in fever.

Alprostadil↗

PubMed2000

Circadian rhythm changes in core temperature over the menstrual cycle: method for noninvasive monitoring.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether core temperature (T(c)) telemetry could be used in ambulatory women to track changes in the circadian T(c) rhythm during different phases of the menstrual cycle and, more specifically, to detect impending ovulation. T(c) was measured in four women who ingested a series of disposable temperature sensors. Data were collected each minute for 2-7 days and analyzed in 36-h segments by automated cosinor analysis to determine the mesor (mean temperature), amplitude, period, acrophase (time of peak temperature), and predicted circadian minimum core temperature (T(c-min)) for each cycle. The T(c) mesor was higher (P < or = 0.001) in the luteal (L) phase (37.39 +/-0.13 degrees C) and lower in the preovulatory (P) phase (36.91 +/-0.11 degrees C) compared with the follicular (F) phase (37.08 +/-0.13 degrees C). The predicted T(c-min) was also greater in L (37.06 +/- 0.14 degrees C) than in menses (M; 36.69 +/- 0.13 degrees C), F (36. 6 +/- 0.16 degrees C), and P (36.38 +/- 0.08 degrees C) (P < or = 0. 0001). During P, the predicted T(c-min) was significantly decreased compared with M and F (P < or = 0.0001). The amplitude of the T(c) rhythm was significantly reduced in L compared with all other phases (P < or = 0.005). Neither the period nor acrophase was affected by menstrual cycle phase in ambulatory subjects. The use of an ingestible temperature sensor in conjunction with fast and accurate cosinor analysis provides a noninvasive method to mark menstrual phases, including the critical preovulatory period.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Cardiovascular and metabolic responses of hypertensive and normotensive rats to one week of cold exposure.

Challenges to energy homeostasis, such as cold exposure, can have consequences for both metabolic and cardiovascular functioning. We hypothesized that 1-wk cold exposure (4 degrees C) would produce concurrent increases in metabolic rate (VO(2); indirect calorimetry), heart rate (HR), and mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) measured by telemetry. In the initial hours of change in ambient temperature (T(a)), both spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and normotensive Sprague-Dawley rats showed rapid increases (in cold) or decreases (in rewarming) of VO(2), HR, and MAP, although the initial changes in MAP and HR were more exaggerated in SHRs. Throughout cold exposure, HR, VO(2), food intake, and locomotor activity remained elevated but MAP decreased in both strains, particularly in the SHR. During rewarming, all measures normalized quickly in both strains except MAP, which fell below baseline (hypotension) for the first few days. The results indicate that variations of T(a) produce rapid changes in a suite of cardiovascular and behavioral responses that have many similarities in hypertensive and normotensive strains of rats. The findings are consistent with the general concept that the cardiovascular responses to cold exposure in rats are closely related to and perhaps a secondary consequence of the mechanisms responsible for increasing heat production.

Acclimatization↗

PubMed2001

Cardiovascular and metabolic responses to fasting and thermoneutrality are conserved in obese Zucker rats.

The primary purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that reduced leptin signaling is necessary to elicit the cardiovascular and metabolic responses to fasting. Lean (Fa/?; normal leptin receptor; n = 7) and obese (fa/fa; mutated leptin receptor; n = 8) Zucker rats were instrumented with telemetry transmitters and housed in metabolic chambers at 23 degrees C (12:12-h light-dark cycle) for continuous (24 h) measurement of metabolic and cardiovascular variables. Before fasting, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was higher (MAP: obese = 103 +/- 3; lean = 94 +/- 1 mmHg), whereas oxygen consumption (VO(2): obese = 16.5 +/- 0.3; lean = 18.6 +/- 0.2 ml. min(-1). kg(-0.75)) was lower in obese Zucker rats compared with their lean controls. Two days of fasting had no effect on MAP in either lean or obese Zucker rats, whereas VO(2) (obese = -3.1 +/- 0.3; lean = -2.9 +/- 0.1 ml. min(-1). kg(-0.75)) and heart rate (HR: obese = -56 +/- 4; lean = -42 +/- 4 beats/min) were decreased markedly in both groups. Fasting increased HR variability both in lean (+1.8 +/- 0.4 ms) and obese (+2.6 +/- 0.3 ms) Zucker rats. After a 6-day period of ad libitum refeeding, when all parameters had returned to near baseline levels, the cardiovascular and metabolic responses to 2 days of thermoneutrality (ambient temperature 29 degrees C) were determined. Thermoneutrality reduced VO(2) (obese = -2.4 +/- 0.2; lean = -3.3 +/- 0.2 ml. min(-1). kg(-0.75)), HR (obese = -46 +/- 5; lean = -55 +/- 4 beats/min), and MAP (obese = -13 +/- 6; lean = -10 +/- 1 mmHg) similarly in lean and obese Zucker rats. The results indicate that the cardiovascular and metabolic responses to fasting and thermoneutrality are conserved in Zucker rats and suggest that intact leptin signaling may not be requisite for the metabolic and cardiovascular responses to reduced energy intake.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Evidence for endothelin involvement in the response to high salt.

Recent evidence suggests that endothelin-1 (ET-1), perhaps through the ET(B) receptor, may participate in blood pressure regulation through the control of sodium excretion. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was continuously measured via telemetry implants in male Sprague-Dawley rats. After 1 wk of baseline measurements, rats were given either high (10%) or low (0.08%) NaCl in chow for the remainder of the experiment (n = 5 in each group). MAP was significantly increased in rats on a high-salt diet (115 +/- 2 mmHg) compared with rats on the low-salt diet (103 +/- 2 mmHg; P < 0.05). All rats were then treated with the ET(B) receptor antagonist A-192621 mixed with the food and adjusted daily to ensure a dose of 30 mg x kg(-1) x day(-1). ET(B) blockade produced an increase in MAP within a few hours of treatment and was significantly higher in rats on the high-salt diet over a 1-wk period (170 +/- 3 vs. 115 +/- 3 mmHg, P < 0.01). To determine whether the increase in MAP during A-192621 treatment was due to increased ET(A) receptor activation, all rats were then given the ET(A)-selective antagonist ABT-627 in the drinking water while a low-salt/high-salt diet and ET(B) blockade were continued. ABT-627 decreased MAP within a few hours in rats on either the high-salt (113 +/- 3 mmHg) or low-salt (101 +/- 3 mmHg) diet. These results support the hypothesis that endothelin, through the ET(B) receptor, participates in blood pressure regulation in the response to salt loading.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

An intraluminal transducer/telemetry system for oviductal motility studies.

A method for measurement of changes in lumen diameter of the oviduct has been developed. Miniature intraluminal "doughnut-shaped" transducers, 1.0-1.2 mm in diameter, constructed from conductive silicone rubber are implanted in the rabbit isthmus and respond to localized changes--increases or decreases--in lumen diameter. Multiple transducer implants in the same tube permit rate as well as direction of contractions to be determined. A custom-designed, micropower dual-channel telemetry system was fabricated to record motility from unrestrained animals. Typical data collected using this system to determine the effects of induced ovulation on instantaneous changes in lumen diameter are presented.

Animals↗

PubMed1978

A microampere radiotelemetry transmitter for measurement of temperature from unrestrained subjects.

A miniature radiotelemetry transmitter is described suitable for chronic or acute monitoring of temperatures from animal or human subjects. The transmitters can be easily constructed with little or no electronics background from discrete components readily available from any electronics supplier. Transmitters weighed from 2.5-20 g, had volumes of 0.8-3.5 ml, had normal currents of 50-120 muA with potential transmitter lives of 35 h to greater than 1 yr, and transmission ranges of 10-30 m. Transmitters could be implanted, swallowed, or connected to chronically or acutely attached temperature probes. The design of the telemetry system allows for reception on any commercial FM receiver. Depending on mode of decoding the temperature data transmitter signal can be accurate to measure changes of from 0.15 to 0.015 degrees C. Thus with a minimum of expense and little electronics background a temperature-dependent transmitter system can be constructed for monitoring temperatures from unrestrained subjects.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Ozone toxicity in the mouse: comparison and modeling of responses in susceptible and resistant strains.

Previous studies from this laboratory have demonstrated a concentration-related hypothermia and increases in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid indexes of toxicity in the rat after exposure to environmentally relevant levels of ozone (O3). In similar studies with C57BL/6J (B6) and C3H/HeJ (C3) mice, other investigators have reported differential effects on BAL toxicity indexes between the two strains after O3 exposure. The present study investigated the relationship between the reported strain differences in BAL parameters in B6 and C3 mice exposed to O3 and the induced hypothermic response. Male 80-day-old mice (n = 94, 47/strain) were used for these studies. Subsets (n = 8/strain) of these animals were surgically implanted with radiotelemetry transmitters that permitted continuous monitoring of core body temperature and activity. All telemetry animals and an equal number of nontelemetry animals (n = 8/strain) were exposed to filtered air for 24 h followed by a 2-h exposure to 2 parts/million 16O3. With use of a similar protocol, groups of nontelemetry mice (n = 12/strain) were exposed to either filtered air or 2 parts/million 16O3 for 2 h. At 0 or 22 h postexposure, mice were anesthetized with halothane and intubated, and their lungs were lavaged with 37 degrees C saline. Although both strains of mice exhibited significant abrupt decreases in core body temperature on exposure to O3 and both recovered rapidly after cessation of the O3 exposure, the response of the C3 mice was more dynamic than that of the B6 mice. Similarly, both strains showed characteristic changes in biomarkers of O3 toxicity; however, the increases in BAL fluid protein and cells at 22 h postexposure were significantly greater and the percentage of neutrophils was significantly less in B6 mice than in C3 mice. It is possible that the strain differences in BAL constituents may be related to the differences in the hypothermic response.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Validity of heart rate, pedometry, and accelerometry for predicting the energy cost of children's activities.

Heart rate telemetry is frequently used to estimate daily activity in children and to validate other methods. This study compared the accuracy of heart rate monitoring, pedometry, triaxial accelerometry, and uniaxial accelerometry for estimating oxygen consumption during typical children's activities. Thirty Welsh children (mean age 9.2 +/- 0.8 yr) walked (4 and 6 km/h) and ran (8 and 10 km/h) on a treadmill, played catch, played hopscotch, and sat and crayoned. Heart rate, body accelerations in three axes, pedometry counts, and oxygen uptake were measured continuously during each 4-min activity. Oxygen uptake was expressed as a ratio of body mass raised to the power of 0.75 [scaled oxygen uptake (sVO2)]. All measures correlated significantly (P < 0.001) with sVO2. A multiple-regression equation that included triaxial accelerometry counts and heart rate predicted sVO2 better than any measure alone (R2 = 0.85, standard error of the estimate = 9.7 ml.kg-0.75.min-1). The best of the single measures was triaxial accelerometry (R2 = 0.83, standard error of the estimate = 10.3 ml.kg-0.75.min-1). It is concluded that a triaxial accelerometer provides the best assessment of activity. Pedometry offers potential for large population studies.

Acceleration↗

PubMed1998

Instrumentation for the remote monitoring of physiological and behavioral variables.

Few commercial products are available for investigators who wish to monitor multiple physiological and behavioral variables in unrestrained subjects. When telemetry is not practical, e.g., in studies of at-sea diving physiology, one of the only options is to design and build a custom data-logging instrument. This paper describes how a data logger was developed for the successful long-term monitoring of dive depth, swim speed, heart rate, water temperature, and multiple body temperatures from free-ranging northern elephant seals. The task was facilitated by using a commercially available single-board computer designed specifically for portable multichannel data acquisition and, where possible, off-the-shelf sensors/transducers available with integrated signal-conditioning circuits. A smaller data logger for monitoring the electrocardiogram, body temperature, and dive behavior of double-crested cormorants is also described to illustrate the flexibility and simplicity of this approach. Although it is customized for diving animals, with incorporation of the appropriate sensors the basic design should be applicable to studies of comparative, environmental, or exercise physiology involving most medium-to-large animals, including humans.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Method for measuring long-term function of muscle-powered implants via radiotelemetry.

Long-term remote monitoring of muscle-powered implants has been made possible with development of an adjustable workload that can be remotely monitored to assess device function. This technique obviates the need for percutaneous access lines and allows test animals to remain untethered, eliminating deleterious effects caused by infection, sedation, or animal stress. Hardware components include a latex bladder fixed within a hermetically sealed canister, multichannel implantable telemetry unit, and subcutaneous access port (for pressure charge adjustment). To validate this method, in vitro tests were performed by using a third-generation muscle energy converter designed to function as an implantable hydraulic pump. Two channels of telemetered pressure data were collected and used to calculate six indexes of device function. Calculated parameters were then compared with measured values to determine accuracy. Correlation between measured and calculated parameters was high in all instances, with most estimates yielding errors of <3%. These results demonstrate the utility of this approach and support its use as a means to monitor muscle-powered devices during long-term animal trials.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Altered vascular reactivity in arterioles of chronic intermittent hypoxic rats.

Recurrent episodic hypoxia (EH) is a feature of sleep apnea that may be responsible for some chronic cardiovascular sequelae such as systemic hypertension. Chronic EH (8 h/day for 35 days) causes elevation of diurnal resting (unstimulated) mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) in the rat. We used in vivo video microscopy to examine arteriolar reactivity in the cremaster muscle of male Sprague-Dawley rats subjected to 35 days of EH. Cremaster muscles of EH (n = 6) and control (n = 6) rats were exposed to varying doses of norepinephrine (NE) (10(-10) to 10(-5) M), ACh (10(-9) to 10(-5) M), and endothelin-1 (10(-12) to 10(-8) M). In a separate experiment, EH (n = 5) and control (n = 6) rats were given one dose of a nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME; 10(-5) M). We also examined endothelial NOS mRNA from the kidneys of EH-stimulated and control (unstimulated) rats. Telemetry-monitored EH rats showed a 16-mmHg increase in MAP over 35 days, whereas control rats showed no change. The response to NE and endothelin-1 were similar for EH and control rats. ACh vasodilatation of arterioles in EH rats was significantly attenuated compared with that of controls. The degree of vasoconstriction in response to blockade of the nitric oxide system by L-NAME was significantly less (83% of baseline diameter with L-NAME) for arterioles of EH rats compared with that for controls (61% of baseline diameter), implying lower basal resting nitric oxide release in the EH rats. Whole kidney mRNA endothelial NOS levels were not different between groups. These data support the hypothesis that chronic elevation of blood pressure associated with EH involves increased peripheral resistance from decreased basal release or production of nitric oxide after 35 days of EH.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMed2001

Selected Contribution: Regulation of sleep-wake states in response to intermittent hypoxic stimuli applied only in sleep.

Recurrent sleep-related hypoxia occurs in common disorders such as obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The marked changes in sleep after treatment suggest that stimuli associated with OSA (e.g., intermittent hypoxia) may significantly modulate sleep regulation. However, no studies have investigated the independent effects of intermittent sleep-related hypoxia on sleep regulation and recovery sleep after removal of intermittent hypoxia. Ten rats were implanted with telemetry units to record the electroencephalogram (EEG), neck electromyogram, and body temperature. After >7 days recovery, a computer algorithm detected sleep-wake states and triggered hypoxic stimuli (10% O2) or room air stimuli only during sleep for a 3-h period. Sleep-wake states were also recorded for a 3-h recovery period after the stimuli. Each rat received an average of 69.0 +/- 6.9 hypoxic stimuli during sleep. The non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) and rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep episodes averaged 50.1 +/- 3.2 and 58.9 +/- 6.6 s, respectively, with the hypoxic stimuli, with 32.3 +/- 3.2 and 58.6 +/- 4.8 s of these periods being spent in hypoxia. Compared with results for room air controls, hypoxic stimuli led to increased wakefulness (P < 0.005), nonsignificant changes in non-REM sleep, and reduced REM sleep (P < 0.001). With hypoxic stimuli, wakefulness episodes were longer and more frequent, non-REM periods were shorter and more frequent, and REM episodes were shorter and less frequent (P < 0.015). Hypoxic stimuli also increased faster frequencies in the EEG (P < 0.005). These effects of hypoxic stimuli were reversed on return to room air. There was a rebound increase in REM sleep, increased slower non-REM EEG frequencies, and decreased wakefulness (P < 0.001). The results show that sleep-specific hypoxia leads to significant modulation of sleep-wake regulation both during and after application of the intermittent hypoxic stimuli. This study is the first to determine the independent effects of sleep-related hypoxia on sleep regulation that approximates OSA before and after treatment.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Exercise delays the hypoxic thermal response in rats.

Exercise exacerbates acute mountain sickness. In infants and small mammals, hypoxia elicits a decrease in body temperature (Tb) [hypoxic thermal response (HTR)], which may protect against hypoxic tissue damage. We postulated that exercise would counteract the HTR and promote hypoxic tissue damage. Tb was measured by telemetry in rats (n = 28) exercising or sedentary in either normoxia or hypoxia (10% O2, 24 h) at 25 degrees C ambient temperature (Ta). After 24 h of normoxia, rats walked at 10 m/min on a treadmill (30 min exercise, 30 min rest) for 6 h followed by 18 h of rest in either hypoxia or normoxia. Exercising normoxic rats increased Tb ( degrees C) vs. baseline (39.68 +/- 0.99 vs. 38.90 +/- 0.95, mean +/- SD, P < 0.05) and vs. sedentary normoxic rats (38.0 +/- 0.09, P < 0.05). Sedentary hypoxic rats decreased Tb (36.15 +/- 0.97 vs. 38.0 +/- 0.36, P < 0.05) whereas Tb was maintained in the exercising hypoxic rats during the initial 6 h of exercise (37.61 +/- 0.55 vs. 37.72 +/- 1.25, not significant). After exercise, Tb in hypoxic rats reached a nadir similar to that in sedentary hypoxic rats (35.05 +/- 1.69 vs. 35.03 +/- 1.32, respectively). Tb reached its nadir significantly later in exercising hypoxic vs. sedentary hypoxic rats (10.51 +/- 1.61 vs. 5.36 +/- 1.83 h, respectively; P = 0.002). Significantly greater histopathological damage and water contents were observed in brain and lungs in the exercising hypoxic vs. sedentary hypoxic and normoxic rats. Thus exercise early in hypoxia delays but does not prevent the HTR. Counteracting the HTR early in hypoxia by exercise exacerbates brain and lung damage and edema in the absence of ischemia.

Animals↗

PubMed2007

Novel technology for the provision of power to implantable physiological devices.

We report the development of a novel technology that enables the wireless transmission of sufficient amounts of power to implantable physiological devices. The system involves a primary unit generating the magnetic field and a secondary pickup unit deriving power from the magnetic field and a power conditioner. The inductively coupled system was able to supply a minimum of 20 mW at all locations and pickup orientations across a rat cage, although much higher power of up to 10 W could be achieved. We hypothesized that it would be possible to use this technology to record a high-fidelity ECG signal in a conscious rat. A device was constructed in which power was utilized to recharge a battery contained within a telemetry device recording ECG signal sampled at 2,000 Hz in conscious rats (200-350 g) living in their home cage. Attributes of the ECG signal (QT, QRS, and PR interval) could be obtained with a high degree of accuracy (<1 ms). ECG and heart rate changes in response to treatment with the beta blocker propranolol and the proarrhythmic alkaloid aconitine were measured. Transmitters were implanted for up to 4 mo, and the characteristic circadian variation in heart rate was recorded. Such technology allows potentially lifetime monitoring without the need for implant refurbishment. The ability to provide suitable power levels to implanted devices without concern to the orientation of the device and without causing heating provides the basis for the development of new devices to record or influence physiological signals in animals or humans over significantly longer time periods than can currently be accommodated.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Effects of microgravity elicited by parabolic flight on abdominal aortic pressure and heart rate in rats.

Abdominal aortic pressure (AAP), heart rate (HR), and aortic nerve activity (ANA) during parabolic flight were measured by using a telemetry system to clarify the acute effect of microgravity (microG) on hemodynamics in rats. While the animals were conscious, AAP increased up to 119 +/- 3 mmHg on exposure to microG compared with the value at 1 G (95 +/- 3 mmHg; P < 0.001), whereas AAP decreased immediately on exposure to microG under urethane anesthesia (microG: 72 +/- 9 mmHg vs. 1 G: 78 +/- 8 mmHg; P < 0.05). HR also increased during microG in conscious animals (microG: 349 +/- 12 beats/min vs. 1 G: 324+9 beats/min; P < 0.01), although no change was observed under anesthesia. ANA, which was measured under anesthesia, decreased in response to acute microG exposure (microG: 33 +/- 7 counts/s vs. 1 G: 49 +/- 5 counts/s; P < 0.01). These results suggest that microG essentially induces a decrease of arterial pressure; however, emotional stress and body movements affect the responses of arterial pressure and HR during exposure to acute microG.

Aircraft↗

PubMed2004

Effect of the anesthetic tricaine (MS-222) on nerve activity in the anterior lateral line of the oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau.

Inductive neural telemetry was used to record from microwire electrodes chronically implanted into the anterior lateral line nerve of the toadfish, Opsanus tau. Spontaneous neural activity and the response of lateral line fibers to water current were continually monitored from 17 primary afferent fibers before, during, and after the administration of the anesthetic tricaine (MS-222). Significant decrease in spontaneous and evoked activity and increase in interspike interval was noted when anesthetic concentrations were >/=0.010%. Neural activity returned to control levels within approximately 90 min of anesthetic withdrawal. Decreasing the pH of the solution without the anesthetic caused transient heightened sensitivity, indicating that tricaine and not the concurrent drop in pH was responsible for the decrease in sensitivity during anesthesia. During a secondary challenge with the anesthetic 24 h after the first, fibers initially showed faster recovery however overall recovery kinetics were similar. Although high tricaine concentration was correlated with decreased neural sensitivity, the concentrations normally used to maintain anesthesia in the toadfish did not have significant effect on the evoked firing rate. Thus given sufficient time to recover from the induction of surgical anesthesia, it may be possible to maintain the animal under light anesthesia while minimizing the physiological effects of tricaine.

Aminobenzoates↗