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PubMed2003

Eating patterns and meal frequency of elite Australian athletes.

We undertook a dietary survey of 167 Australian Olympic team athletes (80 females and 87 males) competing in endurance sports (n = 41), team sports (n = 31), sprint- or skill-based sports (n = 67), and sports in which athletes are weight-conscious (n = 28). Analysis of their 7-day food diaries provided mean energy intakes, nutrient intakes, and eating patterns. Higher energy intakes relative to body mass were reported by male athletes compared with females, and by endurance athletes compared with other athletes. Endurance athletes reported substantially higher intakes of carbohydrate (CHO) than other athletes, and were among the athletes most likely to consume CHO during and after training sessions. Athletes undertaking weight-conscious sports reported relatively low energy intakes and were least likely to consume CHO during a training session or in the first hour of recovery. On average, athletes reported eating on approximately 5 separate occasions each day, with a moderate relationship between the number of daily eating occasions and total energy intake. Snacks, defined as food or drink consumed between main meals, provided 23% of daily energy intake and were chosen from sources higher in CHO and lower in fat and protein than foods chosen at meals. The dietary behaviors of these elite athletes were generally consistent with guidelines for sports nutrition, but intakes during and after training sessions were often sub-optimal. Although it is of interest to study the periodicity of fluid and food intake by athletes, it is difficult to compare across studies due to a lack of standardized terminology.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

[Comparison of dietary intake of type I diabetic patients and nutritional recommendations].

BACKGROUND: The management of type I diabetes mellitus requires a careful balance between nutrient intake, energy expenditure and dose and timing of insulin. According to the recommendations of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) the calories should be prescribed according to energy needs to achieve and maintain a desirable body weight. Many studies have shown that diets in which carbohydrates provide 50-60% of total energy are associated with improved blood glucose control and lower levels of LDL cholesterol. Whenever acceptable to the patients, natural foods containing unrefined carbohydrate should be substituted for the highly refined carbohydrates that are low in fiber. The high risk of macrovascular disease in patients with diabetes dictates a need to restrict total fat (25-30% of total energy) and cholesterol intake (300 mg/day). ADA and EASD suggest that reduction of protein intake (0.8 g/kg/day) may reduce proteinuria and progression to renal failure during the earliest stages of diabetic nephropathy. METHODS: The goal of this study was to describe macronutrient intakes in type I diabetic patients of our Centre by a validated 3 day record. RESULTS: Mean energy intake was 2022+/-427 Kcal/die (vs 2596+/-501 recommended intake). Average protein intake was well above the level of 0.8 g/kg/day required to ensure an adequate protein intake in type I diabetes mellitus. Total fats contributed 29.8+/-7.4 of total energy (vs 27% recommended intake) and saturated fat provided significantly more than 10% of energy. Carbohydrates intake was above 50% of total energy but fiber intakes was substantially lower than the recommendation (12.7+/-5.5 vs 20.1+/-6.6 g/day). CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate current problems in the nutritional intake of type I diabetes mellitus; in fact the majority of our group of patients are not meeting the recommended dietary intakes for protein, total fat, saturated fat and fiber.

English Abstract↗

PubMed1994

Effect of dietary energy restriction on retention of protein, fat and energy in broiler chickens.

1. Broiler chickens were fed 60-100% of recommended energy intakes to study the effects of energy restriction on protein and fat retention. 2. At an energy retention of 179 kJ/kg W0.75 d, only protein was retained. At higher energy intakes, each increment in retention had a rather constant composition: about 85% energy in fat and 15% in protein. At lower energy intakes body fat was mobilised whereas protein was deposited. 3. The efficiencies of energy retention in protein and fat were estimated to be 0.66 and 0.86 respectively. 4. The rather constant composition of additional retained energy after additional energy supply provides an explanation for a linear relationship between energy intake and energy retention.

Aging↗

PubMed2004

Energy requirements in patients with chronic kidney disease.

Knowledge concerning energy requirements of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is important to providing a sufficient amount of energy to maintain adequate nutritional status for these patients. Data regarding energy expenditures of CKD patients are still scarce, and the results obtained are conflicting, with studies showing energy expenditures to be similar, higher, or lower than those of healthy individuals. More recently, studies focusing the role of the comorbidities and of the dialysis procedure on energy expenditure have been carried out, opening a new field of discussion that may help to clarify the profile of the energy expenditure of CKD patients. Another point of interest is related to the evaluation of energy intake. It has been shown that energy intake of CKD patients is lower than the 30 to 35 kcal/kg/day usually recommended. Although anorexia and consequently reduction of food intake is often present in these patients, a degree of underreporting in energy intake cannot be excluded. This review provides an overview of the studies that evaluated energy expenditures as well as those that studied the energy intakes and energy requirements of patients with CKD.

Calorimetry↗

PubMed1991

Effects of diet forage-to-concentrate ratio and intake on energy metabolism in growing beef heifers: net nutrient metabolism by visceral tissues.

Effects of diet forage-to-concentrate ratio and intake on metabolism of nutrients by portal-drained viscera (PDV), liver and kidneys were measured in seven growing beef heifers. Isonitrogenous pelleted diets containing approximately 75% alfalfa or 75% concentrate were fed every 2 h at two metabolizable energy intakes. Greater intake increased net PDV removal of glucose and urea nitrogen and net PDV release of NH3N, alpha-amino nitrogen (AAN), alanine and lactate. Lower net PDV release of NH3N, liver removal of NH3N and AAN and liver release of urea nitrogen accompanied lower N intake and digestion in heifers fed the 75% concentrate vs. the 75% alfalfa diet. Lower net PDV glucose removal resulted in greater total splanchnic glucose release when heifers were fed the 75% concentrate vs. the 75% alfalfa diet. In addition, net PDV, liver and total splanchnic release of beta-hydroxybutyrate (BOHB) were lower when heifers were fed the 75% concentrate vs. the 75% alfalfa diet. Greater tissue energy retention in heifers fed the 75% concentrate vs. the 75% alfalfa diet at equal metabolizable energy intake accompanied differences in net PDV metabolism of glucose, NH3N and BOHB and liver metabolism of nitrogenous compounds, BOHB and lactate.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed2000

Human genomics and obesity: finding appropriate drug targets.

The increasing prevalence of obesity worldwide has prompted the World Health Organization (WHO) to classify it as a global epidemic. Around the globe, more than a half billion people are overweight, and the chronic disease of obesity represents a major threat to health care systems in developed and developing countries. The major health hazards associated with obesity are the risks of developing diabetes, cardiovascular disease, stroke, osteoarthritis and some forms of cancer. In this paper, we review the prevalence of obesity and its cost to health care systems and present the relative contribution of environmental conditions and genetic makeup to the development of obesity in people. We also discuss the concept of "essential" obesity in an "obesigenic" environment. Though weight gain results from a sustained imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure, it is only recently that studies have identified important new mechanisms involved in the regulation of body weight. The etiology of the disease is presented as a feedback model in which afferent signals inform the central controllers in the brain as to the state of the external and internal environment and elicit responses related to the regulation of food intake and energy metabolism. Pharmaceutical agents may intervene at different levels of this feedback model, i.e., reinforce the afferent signals from the periphery, target the central pathways involved in the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure, and increase peripheral energy expenditure and fat oxidation directly. Since obesity results from genetic predisposition, combined with the proactive environmental situation, we discuss new potential targets for generation of drugs that may assist people in gaining control over appetite as well as increasing total energy expenditure and fat oxidation.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Dietary fiber and weight regulation.

The influence of dietary fiber on energy regulation remains controversial. This review summarizes published studies on the effects of dietary fiber on hunger, satiety, energy intake, and body composition in healthy individuals. Under conditions of fixed energy intake, the majority of studies indicate that an increase in either soluble or insoluble fiber intake increases postmeal satiety and decreases subsequent hunger. When energy intake is ad libitum, mean values for published studies indicate that consumption of an additional 14 g/day fiber for >2 days is associated with a 10% decrease in energy intake and body weight loss of 1.9 kg over 3.8 months. Furthermore, obese individuals may exhibit a greater suppression of energy intake and body weight loss (mean energy intake in all studies was reduced to 82% by higher fiber intake in overweight/obese people versus 94% in lean people; body weight loss was 2.4 kg versus 0.8 kg). These amounts are very similar to the mean changes in energy intake and body weight changes observed when dietary fat content is lowered from 38% to 24% of energy intake in controlled studies of nonobese and obese subjects. The observed changes in energy intake and body weight occur both when the fiber is from naturally high-fiber foods and when it is from a fiber supplement. In view of the fact that mean dietary fiber intake in the United States is currently only 15 g/day (i.e., approximately half the American Heart Association recommendation of 25-30 g/day), efforts to increase dietary fiber in individuals consuming <25 g/day may help to decrease the currently high national prevalence of obesity.

Body Composition↗

PubMed1979

Effects of food intake regulation on the energy metabolism of hens and cockerels of a layer strain.

1. Indirect calorimetry was used to study the effects on the energy metabolism of cockerels and hens after peak lay of a hybrid layer strain of regulating food or energy intake to 80% of ad libitum for an extended period of time. 2. Regulation of food intake decreased fasting and fed heat productions per bird and per unit metabolic body weight (kg0.75). 3. Maintenance energy requirements (per kg0.75) of both sexes were reduced about 20% by regulation; maintenance requirements of cockerels were about 30% lower per kg0.75 than hens on the same treatments. 4. Reducing the intake of all nutrients by 20% had the same effect on the energy metabolism of cockerels as restricting energy alone by the same amount. 5. Gross efficiency of egg production, in terms of both mass and energy, was higher when intake was regulated. During weeks 21 to 52 of restriction, daily egg mass output was significantly higher in hens fed ad libitum. 6. After 52 weeks of food regulation, restricted hens weighed 20% less and their total carcass energy was 36% less than hens fed ad libitum; similar effects were found in the cockerels.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Estimates of food and macronutrient intake in a random sample of Northern Ireland adolescents.

Estimates of food consumption and macronutrient intake were obtained from a randomly selected population sample (2%) of 1015 adolescents aged 12 and 15 years in Northern Ireland during the 1990/1991 school year. Dietary intake was assessed by diet history with photographic album to estimate portion size. Reported median energy intakes were 11.0 and 13.1 MJ/d for boys aged 12 and 15 years respectively and 9.2 and 9.1 MJ/d for girls of these ages. Protein, carbohydrate and total sugars intakes as a percentage of total energy varied little between the age and sex groups and were approximately 11, 49 and 20% respectively of daily total energy intakes. Median dietary fibre intakes were approximately 20 and 24 g/d for boys aged 12 and 15 years respectively and 18 and 19 g/d for girls of these ages. Major food sources of energy (as a percentage of total energy intakes) were bread and cereals (15-18%), cakes and biscuits (12-14%), chips and crisps (13-14%), dairy products (9-11%), meat and meat products (9-11%) and confectionery (9%). Fruit and vegetable intakes were low at about 2.5% and 1.5% respectively of total energy intakes. Median fat intakes were high at 39% of total daily energy intakes. Major food sources of fat as a percentage of total fat intakes were from the food groupings: chips and crisps (16-19%), meat and meat products (14-17%), fats and oils (14-16%), cakes and biscuits (13-16%) and dairy products (12-15%). Median intakes of saturated fatty acids were also high at approximately 15% of daily total energy intake while intakes of monounsaturated fatty acids averaged 12% of daily total energy intake. Median polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intakes were low, comprising 5.2 and 5.5% of daily total energy intake for boys aged 12 and 15 years respectively and were lower than the PUFA intakes (5.9 and 6.3% of daily total energy intake) for girls of these ages. About 1.3% for boys and 1.4% for girls of daily total energy intake was in the form of n-3 PUFA. Ca and Mg intakes were adequate for both sexes. Based on these results, some concern about the dietary habits and related health consequences in Northern Ireland adolescents appears justified.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

Energy needs and growth in children with cystic fibrosis.

Children with cystic fibrosis (CF) frequently have growth retardation. Standard growth velocity is dependent on an adequate supply of energy. The effect of dietary counselling and high energy food supplementation on the growth of eight children (aged 4 to 9 years) with CF was determined. The 2-year study was divided into control and test periods each lasting 1 year. Only during the test period did the mean energy intake reach or exceed 100% of the recommended energy requirements. When energy intake increased, weight growth increased significantly (p less than 0.05). Even with pancreatic enzyme replacement, the CF subjects had increased fecal energy losses. Thus, since dietary energy intake would overestimate energy available for metabolism, absorbed energy was determined. There was a positive linear relationship between absorbed energy and weight gain (p less than 0.01). Normal rates of weight gain were seen once absorbed energy intakes reached 100-110% of requirements. The children grew in height and weight at normal rates during the test period, whereas they showed retarded growth during the control period. Our data provide evidence that children with CF have inadequate energy intakes. Furthermore, we have shown that absorbed energy intake is the principal factor limiting the growth of CF children in the age group studied. Finally, it is possible to promote normal growth in CF children with dietary counselling and high energy supplements.

Body Height↗

PubMed1987

Diet, exercise, weight loss, and energy expenditure in moderately overweight women.

The effect of a moderate energy intake plus exercise (MEEX) vs a low energy intake without exercise (LESD) on weight loss and energy expenditure was examined in two groups of moderately overweight women confined to a metabolic unit. An initial 2-week baseline period was used to determine weight maintenance energy requirement (ER). This was followed by a 6-week weight reduction period. Energy intake was decreased to 0.75 ER in MEEX and treadmill exercise was individually prescribed to increase energy expenditure to 1.25 ER. Energy intake was decreased to 0.5 ER in LESD. Thus, both energy intake and expenditure were manipulated to result in an energy deficit of 50 percent. Although total weight loss was significantly higher in LESD compared to MEEX (7.8 vs 5.7 kg), fat loss did not differ (5.1 vs 4.7 kg) hence the proportion of weight loss due to fat was greater in MEEX. Aerobic capacity, measured by maximum oxygen uptake, significantly improved in MEEX (2.44 to 2.84 l/min) but did not change in LESD (2.51 to 2.50 l/min). Basal metabolic rate, energy cost of standardized activities, and 3-hour thermic response to a test meal did not change in either group throughout the study. Thus, a 50 percent energy deficit, achieved by either diet alone or diet in combination with exercise, did not result in conservation of energy expenditure in moderately overweight women.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1989

Study on food intake and energy expenditure during extreme sustained exercise: the Tour de France.

Food intake and energy expenditure (EE) were studied in five cyclists during the 22-day race of the Tour de France. The course is about 4000 km including 30 mountain passages (up to 2700 m altitude) and can be considered as one of the most strenuous endurance endeavors. Nutritional intake was calculated from daily food records. EE was estimated from sleeping time and the low activity period. EE during cycling was predicted based on detailed information. Mean energy intake (EI) was 24.7 MJ with a highest mean daily EI of 32.4 MJ. Mean EE was 25.4 MJ with a highest mean daily EE of 32.7 MJ. Relative contribution of protein, CHO, and fat was 15, 62, and 23 En% resp. 49% of EI was taken during the race resulting in a CHO intake of 94 g.h-1 representing 69 en%. It is questioned whether this amount of CHO is optimal in relation to CHO oxidation and performance. About 30% from CHO intake came from CHO-rich liquids. High EI resulted in high Ca and Fe intake. For vitamins, especially B1, this relation was not found. Vitamin B1 nutrient density dropped to 0.25 mg/4.2 MJ during the race caused by a large intake of refined CHO-rich food items. However, vitamin supplementation was high. Daily water intake was 6.71 with extremes up to 11.81. Therefore, the strategy of intake of large quantities of CHO-rich liquids seems to be the appropriate answer to maintain energy and fluid balance under these extreme conditions.

Bicycling↗

PubMed1997

Energetics during nursing and early postweaning fasting in hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) pups from the Gulf of St Lawrence, Canada.

In this study we measured growth and milk intake and calculated energy intake and its allocation into metabolism and stored tissue for hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) pups. In addition, we measured mass loss, change in body composition and metabolic rate during the first days of the postweaning fast. The mean body mass of the hooded seal pups (n = 5) at the start of the experiments, when they were new-born, was 24.3 +/- 1.3 kg (SD). They gained an average of 5.9 +/- 1.1. kg.day-1 of which 19% was water, 76% fat and 5% protein. This corresponds to an average daily energy deposition of 179.8 +/- 16.0 MJ. The pups were weaned at an average body mass of 42.5 +/- 1.0 kg 3.1 days after the experiment was initiated. During the first days of the postweaning fast the pups lost an average of 1.3 +/- 0.5 kg of body mass daily, of which 56% was water, 16% fat and 28% protein. During the nursing period the average daily water influx for the pups was 124.6 +/- 25.8 ml.kg-1. The average CO2 .production during this period was 1.10 +/- 0.20 ml.g-1.h-1, which corresponds to a field metabolic rate of 714 +/- 130 kJ. kg-1. day-1, or 5.8 +/- 1.1 times the predicted basal metabolic rate according to Kleiber (1975). During the postweaning fast the average daily water influx was reduced to 16.1 +/- 6.6 ml.kg-1. The average CO2 production in this period was 0.58 +/- 0.17 ml.g-1.h-1 which corresponds to a field metabolic rate of 375 +/- 108 kJ.kg-1.day-1 or 3.2 +/- 0.9 times the predicted basal metabolic rate. Average values for milk composition were 33.5% water, 58.6% fat and 6.2% protein. The pups drank an average of 10.4 +/- 1.8 kg of milk daily, which represents an energy intake of 248.9 +/- 39.1 MJ.day-1. The pups were able to store 73.2 +/- 7.7% of this energy as body tissue.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Food intake in the daily environment after energy-reduced lunch, related to habitual meal frequency.

Twenty women were offered two energy-reduced lunches in 48 h and five similar normal-energy lunches within a week, with snacks and evening meals provided and their own standard breakfasts. The subjects were categorized as "nibblers" or "gorgers" (10 per group), by the criterion of habitual eating of "snacks" between mealtimes. Compensatory energy intake occurred in the nibblers within 5 h of the "light" lunch. In the gorgers compensation of energy intake was not reached within 48 h. We conclude that differences in short-term compensation of intake can arise from habitual snacking or its absence.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Maternal dietary intake in twin pregnancies: does it diminish towards term?

We tested the hypothesis that energy intake among women with twin pregnancies decreases in late gestation, as the uterus enlarges and they become increasingly uncomfortable. We asked women to recall dietary intake for the previous 24 hours, every 2 weeks from around 29 weeks of gestation, using a photographic atlas and other strategies to estimate portion size. Eighty women provided data at around 29, 31, 33 and 35 weeks of gestation. We calculated total energy intake, and energy intake from carbohydrate, fat and protein. Data were log transformed to reduce skewness. Using mixed effects linear regression models, we found minimal evidence that total energy intake changed over this time period, either before or after adjustment for potential confounding factors (95% confidence interval for relative change per week: -1.4%, 0.6%). There was weak evidence of a small decline in carbohydrate intake over time, both before and after controlling for energy intake. We cannot exclude change in energy intake or diet composition before 29 weeks or after 35 weeks of twin gestation.

Diet↗

PubMed2006

The 2005 USDA Food Guide Pyramid is associated with more adequate nutrient intakes within energy constraints than the 1992 Pyramid.

The USDA issued the Food Guide Pyramid (FGP) to help Americans choose healthy diets. We examined whether adherence to the 1992 and 2005 FGP was associated with moderate energy and adequate nutrient intakes. We used data for 2138 men and 2213 women > 18 y old, from the 2001-2002 U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Quadratic programming was used to generate diets with minimal departure from intakes reported for the NHANES 2001-02. We examined the effect of the number of servings/d of Food Pyramid groups set at 1992 and at 2005 FGP recommendations for 1600, 2200, and 2800 kcal (1 kcal = 4.184 kJ) levels. We calculated energy and nutrients provided by different FGP dietary patterns. Within current U.S. dietary practices, following the 1992 FGP without sodium restriction may provide 200 more kcal than recommended for each energy level. Although it can meet most of old nutrient recommendations (1989), it fails to meet the latest dietary reference intakes, especially for the 1600 kcal level. The 2005 FGP appears to provide less energy and more adequate nutrient intakes, with the exception of vitamin E and potassium for some groups. However, without discretionary energy restriction, Americans are at risk of having excessive energy intake even if they follow the 2005 FGP food serving recommendations. Our analysis suggests that following the 2005 FGP may be associated with lower energy and optimal nutrient intake. Careful restriction of discretionary calories appears necessary for appropriate energy intakes to be maintained.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Reproductive energetics of the nectar-feeding bat Glossophaga soricina (Phyllostomidae).

Pregnancy and lactation are energetically demanding periods for female mammals. Unique amongst mammals, bats have to allocate considerable amounts of energy into their offspring because juveniles cannot be weaned until they are capable of flying at almost adult size. Similar to other bat species, female nectar-feeding bats should increase their energy intake after parturition to meet the energy demands of offspring growth. However, previous studies have shown that nectar-feeding bats differ from other similar-sized bats in having a much higher metabolic rate. Therefore, I examined how nectarivorous bats respond to the energetic challenge of reproduction. In this study, the daily energy intake of pregnant and lactating Glossophaga soricina was measured during a 6-week period prior to and a 10-week period after parturition. Body mass of G. soricina increased linearly until parturition. Within the same time period, daily flight time decreased and daily energy intake remained constant. Probably, the reduced flight activity of pregnant bats compensated for the increased power requirements of flight, thus resulting in an almost constant daily energy turnover. During 35 days after parturition, neither flight time, body mass nor daily energy intake of lactating females changed significantly. On average, the daily energy intake of pregnant, lactating or non-reproducing G. soricina was not significantly different. Possibly, for unknown reasons, female G. soricina maintain a daily energy intake of a constant high level during and beyond reproduction.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Nutrient oxidation and metabolic rate as affected by meals containing different proportions of carbohydrate and fat, in healthy young women.

The amount and composition of food eaten influence body weight regulation, which requires that, in the long term, energy intake matches energy expenditure and that the oxidation rate to be equal to intake for each and separate nutrients. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of two liquid formulas with different macronutrient composition, a high carbohydrate (HC) meal as compared to a high fat (HF) meal, on substrate oxidation and on thermic effect of food (TEF). Eighteen lean and healthy women which were fed a HC diet during the 3 preceding d were studied for a further 4 h after meal intake. The test meals provided fixed energy intake and whose calculated FQ were 0.77 for HF meal, and 0.96 for HC meal. The mean NPRQs were higher (P < 0.01) in the HC group than in the HF group, even with values greater than 1.00 indicating net lipid synthesis (NL), and which correlated with metabolic rate (MR) value (P < 0.05), glucose (P < 0.05), and heart rate (HR) values. Carbohydrate (CHO) oxidation was higher with the HC than with HF meal (P < 0.01) and correlated with the MR (P < 0.05). Protein oxidation rate rose above baseline (P < 0.01); this increase was accompanied by with a negative CHO balance. It is concluded that the change in fuel selection and the increase of TEF is mainly due to CHO intake and metabolism, respectively, and that surplus of dietary CHO of preceding days together with a large load of CHO can exceed the glycogen storage capacity and trigger NL.

Adult↗