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PubMed2000

Mechanism of neurofibrillary degeneration and pharmacologic therapeutic approach.

Neurofibrillary degeneration is a key histopathological brain lesion of Alzheimer disease (AD) and related neurodegenerative disorders such as frontotemporal dementia and Parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17 (FTDP-17), commonly referred to as tauopathies. Microtubule associated protein (MAP) tau, which is a major MAP of a normal mature neuron is abnormally hyperphosphorylated in tauopathies and is the major protein subunit of paired helical filaments (PHF)/straight filaments (SF) which accumulate in the soma (as neurofibrillary tangles) and dystrophic neurites (as neuropil threads and as dystrophic neurites surrounding the beta-amyloid core in neuritic plaques in AD) of the affected neurons. Unlike normal tau which stimulates assembly and stabilizes microtubules, the abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau inhibits assembly and disrupts microtubules. The abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau competes with tubulin/microtubules in associating with normal tau, MAP1 and MAP2. This sequestration of normal MAPs by the abnormal tau results in the breakdown of the microtubules. The association of the abnormal tau with normal tau and not with MAP1 or MAP2 results in the formation of tangles of tau filaments. All these toxic properties of the abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau are eliminated by its enzymatic dephosphorylation. Activities of phosphoseryl/phosphothreonyl protein phosphatases (PP)-2A and PP-1 which can dephosphorylate the abnormal tau to a normal-like state are compromised in AD brain. Dephosphorylation by PP-2A and PP-2B and to a lesser extent by PP-1 restores the normal microtubule assembly promoting activity in AD P-tau in vitro. Neurofibrillary tangles of PHF isolated from AD brain are also dissociated on in vitro dephosphorylation with PP-2A, and the tau released by this treatment can stimulate microtubule assembly. Thus, it appears that the abnormal hyperphosphorylation of tau leads to neurodegeneration through breakdown of the microtubule network and that the abnormal tau on association with normal tau forms neurofibrillary tangles of tau filaments i.e. PHF/SF. Increase in tau phosphatase activity is a promising approach to inhibit neurofibrillary degeneration and thereby the diseases characterized by this lesion.

Alzheimer Disease↗

PubMed1995

Typing recombinant inbred mouse strains for microsatellite markers on chromosomes 10, 16, 18, 19, and X.

A total of 57 different microsatellite variants have been typed in one or more of five different sets of recombinant inbred (RI) mouse strains. The present report concentrates on markers for Chromosomes (Chrs) 10, 16, 18, 19 and X. These markers extend the regions swept in these RI strains, provide reference markers for integrating RI and conventional maps, and provide additional estimates of genetic distances. Multilocus maps, based on maximum likelihood analysis of present and previously published RI SDPs on five chromosomes, are presented. Unexpectedly, three microsatellite markers, previously assigned to Chr 10, detected polymorphic fragments mapping to other chromosomes.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Drawing the boundary between subject and object: comments on the mind-brain problem.

Physics says that it cannot deal with the mind-brain problem, because it does not deal in subjectivities, and mind is subjective. However, biologists (among others) still claim to seek a material basis for subjective mental processes, which would thereby render them objective. Something is clearly wrong here. I claim that what is wrong is the adoption of too narrow a view of what constitutes 'objectivity', especially in identifying it with what a 'machine' can do. I approach the problem in the light of two cognate circumstances: (a) the 'measurement problem' in quantum physics, and (b) the objectivity of standard mathematics, even though most of it is beyond the reach of 'machines'. I argue that the only resolution to such problems is in the recognition that closed loops of causation are 'objective'; i.e. legitimate objects of scientific scrutiny. These are explicitly forbidden in any machine or mechanism. A material system which contains such loops is called 'complex'. Such complex systems thus must possess non-simulable models; i.e. models which contain impredicativities or 'self-references' which cannot be removed, or faithfully mapped into a single coherent syntactic time-frame. I consider a few of the consequences of the above, in the context of thus redrawing the boundary between subject and object.

Biophysical Phenomena↗

PubMed2005

Hemodynamic variables related to outcome in septic shock.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of hemodynamic variables on the outcome of critically ill patients in septic shock and to identify the optimal threshold values related to outcome with special reference to continuously monitored mean arterial pressure (MAP) and mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2). DESIGN AND SETTING: Retrospective cohort study in a university hospital intensive care unit (ICU). PATIENTS: All consecutive 111 patients with septic shock treated in our ICU between 1 Jan. 1999 and 30 Jan. 2002. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: The data on the hemodynamic and respiratory monitoring and circulation-related laboratory tests over the first 48 h of treatment in the ICU were collected from the clinical data management system. Data from 6 h and 48 h were analyzed separately. The 30-day mortality rate was 33% (36 of 111). Univariate analysis and forward stepwise logistic regression analysis were performed using the 30-day mortality as the primary endpoint. Mean MAP and lactate on arrival during 6 h, while mean MAP, the area of SvO2 under 70%, and mean CVP during 48 h were independently associated with mortality. MAP level of 65 mmHg and SvO2 of 70% had the highest areas under receiver characteristics curves. CONCLUSIONS: MAP, SvO2, CVP, and initial lactate were independently associated with mortality in septic shock, with threshold values supporting those published in recent guidelines.

APACHE↗

PubMed1996

Use of competitive PCR to assay copy number of repetitive elements in banana.

Banana is one of the most important subtropical fruit crops. Genetic improvement by traditional breeding strategies is difficult and better knowledge of genomic structure is needed. Repeated sequences are powerful markers for genetic fingerprinting. The method proposed here to determine the copy number of nuclear repetitive elements is based on competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and can also be used for quantifying cytosolic sequences. The reliability of this method was investigated on crude preparations of total DNA. Variations due to the heterogeneity of crude DNA extracts showed that a single locus reference is needed for accurate quantification. A mapped microsatellite locus was used to normalize copy number measurements. Copy number assay of repetitive elements using this method clearly distinguishes between the two banana subspecies investigated: Musa acuminata spp. banskii and M. acuminata spp. malaccensis. Two repetitive sequence families, pMaCIR1115 and pA9-26, were assayed that cover up to 1% of the M. acuminata genome. Their copy number varied up to six fold between the two subspecies. Furthermore, sequence quantification showed that mitochondrial genomes are present in crude leaf-extracted banana DNA at up to 40 copies per cell.

Blotting, Southern↗

PubMed1991

Reverse use-dependent effects of sotalol demonstrated by recording monophasic action potentials of the right ventricle.

In 22 patients referred for electrophysiologic study, monophasic action potentials (MAP) were recorded from the right ventricular aspect of the ventricular septum. The duration of MAP at 90% (MAP90) and 30% (MAP30) repolarization was measured in sinus rhythm, at a constant atrial paced cycle length of 600 ms for 3 minutes and at constant ventricular paced cycle lengths of 600, 500, 400 and 300 ms for 20 beats. Programmed ventricular stimulation from the apex of the right ventricle was performed at a basic drive cycle length of 400 ms and MAP90 and MAP30 of premature beats was determined. Changes of MAP duration were assessed 20 minutes after administration of intravenous sotalol 1.5 mg/kg. Sotalol significantly increased MAP90 and MAP30 in sinus rhythm. This was independent from sinus cycle length prolongation as evidenced by a significant prolongation of MAP90 and MAP30 with constant atrial pacing after sotalol. With slow ventricular stimulation frequencies and with long coupling intervals at programmed ventricular stimulation, sotalol significantly prolonged MAP90 and MAP30; with high stimulation frequencies and at short coupling intervals the action potential-prolonging effect of sotalol was diminished, indicating a reverse use-dependent effect of sotalol on repolarization of the right ventricle in humans.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed1996

On knowing how to do things: a theory of motor imagery.

The distinction between 'knowing how' and 'knowing that' is fundamental to current theories of cognition. Two distinct encodings or representations are implied, one conscious and verbalisable and the other normally unconscious yet demonstrable in behaviour. The paper discusses the nature of these two kinds of representation and relations between them. It is shown that imagery forms an essential mediating link between the two encodings and a theoretical model-the Action-Language-Imagination or ALI model-is presented. An important feature of the model is the role attributed to the motor system in generating imagery and principal features of motor imagery are reviewed in the context of the ALI model and with reference to recent experimental findings. Problems in mapping conscious representations of action onto physical brain mechanisms are briefly discussed. It is proposed that the physical basis of imaginal representations of actions is best understood in terms of the mechanisms of motor control. A two stage theory of motor imagery is proposed in which the first stage, the generation of a prototypical action is virtually identical to that involved in overt actions whilst the second stage depends on the retrieval of sensory impressions from memory.

Cognition↗

PubMed2006

Distribution of the dopamine innervation in the macaque and human thalamus.

We recently defined the thalamic dopaminergic system in primates; it arises from numerous dopaminergic cell groups and selectively targets numerous thalamic nuclei. Given the central position of the thalamus in subcortical and cortical interplay, and the functional relevance of dopamine neuromodulation in the brain, detailing dopamine distribution in the thalamus should supply important information. To this end we performed immunohistochemistry for dopamine and the dopamine transporter in the thalamus of macaque monkeys and humans to generate maps, in the stereotaxic coronal plane, of the distribution of dopaminergic axons. The dopamine innervation of the thalamus follows the same pattern in both species and is most dense in midline limbic nuclei, the mediodorsal and lateral posterior association nuclei, and in the ventral lateral and ventral anterior motor nuclei. This distribution suggests that thalamic dopamine has a prominent role in emotion, attention, cognition and complex somatosensory and visual processing, as well as in motor control. Most thalamic dopaminergic axons are thin and varicose and target both the neuropil and small blood vessels, suggesting that, besides neuronal modulation, thalamic dopamine may have a direct influence on microcirculation. The maps provided here should be a useful reference in future experimental and neuroimaging studies aiming at clarifying the role of the thalamic dopaminergic system in health and in conditions involving brain dopamine, including Parkinson's disease, drug addiction and schizophrenia.

Aged↗

PubMed2006

Proteomic survey of the pathogenic Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae strain 7448 and identification of novel post-translationally modified and antigenic proteins.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is an important pathogen for pigs, being the causative agent of enzootic pneumonia. Recently, the genome sequences of three strains, J, 7448 and 232 have been reported. Here, we describe the results of a proteomic analysis, based on two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of soluble protein extracts, immunoblot and mass spectrometry, which was carried out aiming the identification of gene products and antigenic proteins from the M. hyopneumoniae pathogenic strain 7448. A preliminary M. hyopneumoniae proteome map in two pH ranges (3-10 and 4-7) was produced. A total of 31 different coding DNA sequences (CDSs), including three hypothetical ones, were experimentally verified with the identification of the corresponding protein products by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry. According to the Clusters of Orthologous Groups (COG) functional classification, the identified proteins were assigned to the groups of metabolism (13), cellular processes (5) and information and storage processing (4). Nine of the identified proteins were not classifiable by COG, including some related to cytoadherence and possibly involved in pathogenicity. Moreover, at least five highly antigenic proteins of M. hyopneumoniae were identified by immunoblots, including four novel ones (a heat shock protein 70, an elongation factor Tu, a pyruvate dehydrogenase E1-beta subunit and the P76 membrane protein). The now available proteome map is expected to serve as a reference for comparative analyses between M. hyopneumoniae pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains, and for methabolic studies based on cells cultured under modified conditions.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Analysing functional connectivity in brain slices by a combination of infrared video microscopy, flash photolysis of caged compounds and scanning methods.

We evaluate a novel set-up for scanning functional connectivity in brain slices from the somatosensory cortex of the rat. Upright infrared video microscopy for targeted placement of electrodes is combined with rapid photolysis of bath-applied caged neurotransmitter induced by a xenon flash lamp. Flash photolysis of caged glutamate and electrical stimulation produce comparable field potential responses and demonstrate that the viability of the submerged slices exceeds several hours. Glutamate release leads to field potential responses whose two phases are differentially affected by selective blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate- and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate-type glutamate receptors with DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid and 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-nitro-2,3-dioxo-benzo[f]quinoxaline-7-sulphonamide, respectively. Rapid computer-controlled scanning of hundreds of distinct stimulation sites with simultaneous recordings at a fixed reference site allows construction of functional input maps from peak amplitudes and delays to peak of field potential responses. Selective laminar expansion of the functional input maps after bicuculline application demonstrates that the combination of this conveniently assembled set-up with pharmacological and physical manipulations can provide insights into the determinants of functional connectivity in brain slices.

2-Amino-5-phosphonovalerate↗

PubMed2001

Three-dimensional distribution of bipolar atrial electrogram voltages in patients with congenital heart disease.

Voltage differences might be used to distinguish normal atrial tissue from abnormal atrial tissue. This study was aimed at identifying lowest voltage areas in patients with atrial tachycardia after surgical correction of congenital heart disease and to evaluate if identification of these areas in diseased hearts facilitates selection of critical conduction pathways in reentrant circuits as target sites for catheter ablation. Ten patients (four men, age 39 +/- 15 years) with normal sized atria and atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia (control group) and ten patients (5 men, 32 +/- 7 years) with congenital heart disease and postoperative atrial tachycardia (CL 281 +/- 79 ms) referred for radiofrequency catheter ablation were studied. Mapping and ablation was guided by a three-dimensional electroanatomic mapping system (CARTO) in all patients. In the control group, voltage maps were constructed during sinus rhythm and during tachycardia to evaluate the voltage distribution. The amplitude of bipolar signals was 1.90 +/- 1.45 mV (0.11-8.12 mV, n = 660) during sinus rhythm and 1.45 +/- 1.66 mV (0.12-5.83 mV, n = 440, P < 0.05) during atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia. In the study group, the amplitude of 1,962 bipolar signals during tachycardia was 1.01 +/- 1.19 mV (0.04-9.40 mV), which differed significantly from the control group during tachycardia (P < 0.0001). No significant difference in the tachycardia cycle length was found (P < 0.05) between the control and study groups. As the lowest voltage measured in normal hearts was 0.1 mV, this value was used as the upper limit of the lowest voltage areas in the patients with congenital heart disease. These areas were identified by detailed voltage mapping and represented by a gray color. Activation and propagation maps were then used to select critical conduction pathways as target sites for ablation. These sites were characterized by fragmented signals in all patients. Ablation resulted in termination of the tachycardia in eight (80%) of ten patients. Complications were not observed. Identification of the lowest voltage areas using a cut-off value of 0.1 mV in congenital heart disease patients with postoperative atrial reentrant tachycardia facilitated the selection of critical conduction pathways as target sites for ablation.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The split-line pattern of the distal femur: A consideration in the orientation of autologous cartilage grafts.

PURPOSE: To identify the surface collagen orientations of the distal femur and create a generic cartilage split-line map that could be used as a reference guide for the proper alignment of autogenous cartilage transplants. TYPE OF STUDY: Anatomic, cadaveric study. METHODS: Eight fresh cadaveric knee joints were used to determine the collagen fiber orientation of the superficial layer of the articular cartilage of the distal femur. A split-line technique was used, in which a dissecting needle dipped in India ink was inserted into the cartilage. The resulting split between collagen fibers identified the preferential orientation of the collagen fibers at each needle insertion point. RESULTS: The results of the study show that a precise and consistent orientation of collagen fibers exists in areas that are known to experience significant joint load. CONCLUSIONS: Because the orientation of these split lines is thought to reflect the direction of tensile forces normally seen by the articular cartilage at a specific area, we hypothesize that proper orientation of autogenous cartilage plugs (with respect to split-line direction) may maximize resistance to these tensile forces and thus optimize the long-term health of these cartilage plugs.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Anchored reference loci in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) for integrating pine genomics.

Anchored reference loci provide a framework for comparative mapping. They are landmarks to denote conserved chromosomal segments, allowing the synthesis of genetic maps from multiple sources. We evaluated 90 expressed sequence tag polymorphisms (ESTPs) from loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) for this function. Primer sets were assayed for amplification and polymorphism in six pedigrees, representing two subgenera of Pinus and a distant member of the Pinaceae, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco). On average, 89% of primer sets amplified in four species of subgenus Pinus, 49% in one species of subgenus Strobus, and 22% in Douglas-fir. Polymorphisms were detected for 37-61% of the ESTPs within each pedigree. Comparative mapping in loblolly and slash pine (P. elliottii Englm.) revealed that ESTPs mapped to the same location. Disrupted synteny or significant disruptions in colinearity were not detected. Thirty-five ESTPs met criteria established for anchor loci. The majority of those that did not meet these criteria were excluded when map location was known in only a single species. Anchor loci provide a unifying tool for the community, facilitating the creation of a "generic" pine map and serving as a foundation for studies on genome organization and evolution.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed1993

Thumb in cheek? Sensory reorganization and perceptual plasticity after limb amputation.

We describe a patient who initially suffered from carpal tunnel syndrome that was alleviated by surgery. Subsequently, the patient's right arm was amputated and a phantom limb emerged. Stimuli applied to different areas of the face gave rise to sensations that were referred to the phantom by precise topographic mapping. This perceptual mapping of the (phantom) hand onto the face area modelled the form of prior pathology due to carpal tunnel syndrome. The findings have implications for the relief of phantom pain.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Analysis of vascular access in intestinal transplant recipients using the Miami classification from the VIIIth International Small Bowel Transplant Symposium.

BACKGROUND: Loss of vascular access in patients with intestinal failure is considered an indication for intestinal transplantation. Such patients often have one or more occluded vein sites. Venous access could be classified according to the number of occluded vessels, to facilitate pre- and postoperative management. METHODS: At the VIIIth International Small Bowel Transplant Symposium in September 2003, a new classification of vascular access in patients who were candidates for bowel transplant was proposed. The classification was then applied to stratify all patients that underwent intestinal transplantation at the University of Miami between 1998 and 2003. Data were collected on Doppler ultrasonography, angiography, and vein angioplasty in such patients. RESULTS: A total of 106 cases in 91 patients were included in the study. Based on Doppler ultrasound results, 51.9% of patients fell into class I (no thrombosed vessels), 21.7% were in class II (one occluded vessel, or positive risk factors for thrombosis), 24.5% were in class III (multiple thrombosed vessels), and 1.9% were in class IV (all vessels thrombosed). Fifteen percent of the patients required preoperative angiography to better evaluate venous access. Most of the patients that required angiography were in class III or IV, and 53.3% of patients requiring angiography needed additional venous angioplasty to achieve access. CONCLUSIONS: All patients that are referred for intestinal transplantation should undergo preliminary mapping of their venous access by Doppler ultrasound and then be assigned to a vascular access class. Those patients with multiple thrombosed vessels (class III and above) should be strongly considered for additional angiographic evaluation.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Geometric visual hallucinations, Euclidean symmetry and the functional architecture of striate cortex.

This paper is concerned with a striking visual experience: that of seeing geometric visual hallucinations. Hallucinatory images were classified by Klüver into four groups called form constants comprising (i) gratings, lattices, fretworks, filigrees, honeycombs and chequer-boards, (ii) cobwebs, (iii) tunnels, funnels, alleys, cones and vessels, and (iv) spirals. This paper describes a mathematical investigation of their origin based on the assumption that the patterns of connection between retina and striate cortex (henceforth referred to as V1)-the retinocortical map-and of neuronal circuits in V1, both local and lateral, determine their geometry. In the first part of the paper we show that form constants, when viewed in V1 coordinates, essentially correspond to combinations of plane waves, the wavelengths of which are integral multiples of the width of a human Hubel-Wiesel hypercolumn, ca. 1.33-2 mm. We next introduce a mathematical description of the large-scale dynamics of V1 in terms of the continuum limit of a lattice of interconnected hypercolumns, each of which itself comprises a number of interconnected iso-orientation columns. We then show that the patterns of interconnection in V1 exhibit a very interesting symmetry, i.e. they are invariant under the action of the planar Euclidean group E(2)-the group of rigid motions in the plane-rotations, reflections and translations. What is novel is that the lateral connectivity of V1 is such that a new group action is needed to represent its properties: by virtue of its anisotropy it is invariant with respect to certain shifts and twists of the plane. It is this shift-twist invariance that generates new representations of E(2). Assuming that the strength of lateral connections is weak compared with that of local connections, we next calculate the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of the cortical dynamics, using Rayleigh-Schrödinger perturbation theory. The result is that in the absence of lateral connections, the eigenfunctions are degenerate, comprising both even and odd combinations of sinusoids in straight phi, the cortical label for orientation preference, and plane waves in r, the cortical position coordinate. 'Switching-on' the lateral interactions breaks the degeneracy and either even or else odd eigenfunctions are selected. These results can be shown to follow directly from the Euclidean symmetry we have imposed. In the second part of the paper we study the nature of various even and odd combinations of eigenfunctions or planforms, the symmetries of which are such that they remain invariant under the particular action of E(2) we have imposed. These symmetries correspond to certain subgroups of E(2), the so-called axial subgroups. Axial subgroups are important in that the equivariant branching lemma indicates that when a symmetrical dynamical system becomes unstable, new solutions emerge which have symmetries corresponding to the axial subgroups of the underlying symmetry group. This is precisely the case studied in this paper. Thus we study the various planforms that emerge when our model V1 dynamics become unstable under the presumed action of hallucinogens or flickering lights. We show that the planforms correspond to the axial subgroups of E(2), under the shift-twist action. We then compute what such planforms would look like in the visual field, given an extension of the retinocortical map to include its action on local edges and contours. What is most interesting is that, given our interpretation of the correspondence between V1 planforms and perceived patterns, the set of planforms generates representatives of all the form constants. It is also noteworthy that the planforms derived from our continuum model naturally divide V1 into what are called linear regions, in which the pattern has a near constant orientation, reminiscent of the iso-orientation patches constructed via optical imaging. The boundaries of such regions form fractures whose points of intersection correspond to the well-known 'pinwheels'. To complete the study we then investigate the stability of the planforms, using methods of nonlinear stability analysis, including Liapunov-Schmidt reduction and Poincaré-Lindstedt perturbation theory. We find a close correspondence between stable planforms and form constants. The results are sensitive to the detailed specification of the lateral connectivity and suggest an interesting possibility, that the cortical mechanisms by which geometric visual hallucinations are generated, if sited mainly in V1, are closely related to those involved in the processing of edges and contours.

Animals↗

PubMed2025

Mapping transcriptional responses to cellular perturbation dictionaries with RNA fingerprinting.

Single-cell perturbation dictionaries provide systematic measurements of how cells respond to genetic and chemical perturbations, and create the opportunity to assign causal interpretations to observational data. Here, we introduce RNA fingerprinting, a statistical framework that maps transcriptional responses from new experiments onto reference perturbation dictionaries. RNA fingerprinting learns denoised perturbation "fingerprints" from single-cell data, then probabilistically assigns query cells to one or more candidate perturbations while accounting for uncertainty. We benchmark our method across ground-truth datasets, demonstrating accurate assignments at single-cell resolution, scalability to genome-wide screens, and the ability to resolve combinatorial perturbations. We demonstrate its broad utility across diverse biological settings: identifying context-specific regulators of p53 under ribosomal stress, characterizing drug mechanisms of action and dose-dependent off-target effects, and uncovering cytokine-driven B cell heterogeneity during secondary influenza infection in vivo. Together, these results establish RNA fingerprinting as a versatile framework for interpreting single-cell datasets by linking cellular states to the underlying perturbations which generated them.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1994

Isolation of polymorphic AGC repeats located 3' to bovine SINEs.

A bovine genomic library was screened for the presence of (AGC)n repeats. All isolated AGC repeats were located adjacent to the 3' end of bovine short interspersed nuclear elements (SINE). Polymerase chain reactions (PCR) using either two unique primers or one unique and one SINE primer produced high-resolution products without the secondary artifact ladders typical of dinucleotide microsatellites. Four AGC microsatellites were found to be polymorphic with 2-4 alleles each and polymorphism information context (PIC) values ranging between 0.26 and 0.49. One microsatellite, ARO25, was mapped to chromosome 26 with the CSIRO reference families. Because of their strong association with AGC repeats and high frequency in the genome, SINE-3' PCR may prove to be a novel source of polymorphic trinucleotide markers in the bovine genome.

Animals↗