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[Breakfast and snack of schooled adolescents in Santander].

OBJECTIVE: To study the breakfast model and food intake at mid-morning (snack) in schooled adolescents at Santander city. SUBJECTS: A cross-sectional study was performed analyzing a sample of 403 adolescents: 232 girls (58%; 95% CI: 52%-62%) and 171 boys (42%; 95% CI: 38%-48%), with ages between 12 and 19 years, schooled at 12 second degree education centers of Santander, by means of a closed questionnaire and a recall 24 hours later. RESULTS: Five percent (95% CI: 3.1%-7.6%) of the adolescents referred neglecting breakfast. The most consumed foods were milk (47%; 95% CI: 42%-52%), chocolate milk (40%; 95% CI: 36%-45%), and cookies (45%; 95%CI: 36%-45%). On the other hand, 63% of adolescents consume whole milk (95% CI: 58%-70%), 21% semi-skimmed milk (95%CI: 17%-26%), and 11% skimmed milk (95% CI: 8%-15%). A decreasing lineal tendency in whole milk consumption is observed and a parallel increase in consumption of milks with a lower fat content as the academic year of adolescents advances (Armitage's chi-square test for lineal tendency = 2.32; p = 0.02). Boys consume an average of 3.0 (SD = 1.35) different foods during breakfast and girls 2.4 (SD = 1.20). Forty-three percent (95% CI: 38%-48%) of adolescents have a snack, which means that 2% of adolescents do not have breakfast or a snack (95% CI: 1%-4%). Breakfast represents 18% (95% CI: 16%-19%) of the total daily energy intake, whereas for snack, this percentage is 16% (95% CI: 14%-17%). CONCLUSION: it is necessary to promote consumption of a healthy breakfast and snack that provide an appropriate quantitative and qualitative intake.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

[The consumption frequency and the caloric value of breakfasts among the school children and teenagers].

The aim of this study was to make a customary frequency analysis of breakfast and lunch consumption among the children and teenagers from the rural environment, and a comparison of the caloric value of breakfasts and other meals eaten by the rural and urban teenagers during their stay at school. Breakfast was consumed by 52.8% to 65.85% of the tested from the rural environment. Among the upper secondary school students, the boys consumed their breakfast more often than the girls. A customary frequency lunch consumption in the rural population has lowered with age. It was always consumed by over 52% of the primary school students and only 31.9% of the lower secondary school students. The breakfasts of the caloric value lower than 20% in comparison with daily food rations were eaten by 43.74% of the students, and the tested from the urban area in this group made a higher percentage. Any vital differences in the breakfast caloric values depending on the place of living were not observed. More than 20% of the students in total had consumed neither a product nor a meal at school the day before the test was carried out. A higher percentage in this group made the boys from the urban area, but the rural boys at the age of 10.5 accepted a considerably smaller amount of energy from the food as compared with their peers from the city.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1987

The effect of high and low-fibre breakfasts on hunger, satiety and food intake in a subsequent meal.

Twenty normal weight female volunteers divided into high and low restraint groups consumed breakfast meals of high and low-fibre content (12.0 g and 3.0 g fibre respectively) on two separate occasions. Visual analogue scales were used to record hunger, fullness, desire to eat, and a measure of prospective consumption for 21/2 hours after each meal. At this point, a tray of pre-weighed lunch foods was offered and subjects were requested to eat as much or as little as they desired. The two breakfast meals (of equal weight) were based on toast, breakfast cereal, milk, butter and orange marmalade. No significant difference in energy intake at lunch was found after the high and low fibre breakfasts, or between the restraint groups. There was no significant difference between ratings after the high and low-fibre meals except for fullness, which was greater after the high-fibre breakfast. The effect of fibre overall, was relatively weak compared to the differences between the two restraint groups, with the high restraint group consistently expressing significantly less hunger before, during and after the breakfasts compared to the low restraint group.

Dietary Fiber↗

PubMed1996

Breakfasts high in protein, fat or carbohydrate: effect on within-day appetite and energy balance.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effect of isoenergetically-dense, high-protein (HP), high-fat (HF) or high-carbohydrate (HC) breakfasts (at 08.30) on subjective hunger, fullness and appetite (measured hourly on a 100 mm visual analogue scale), macronutrient balance and ad libitum energy intake (EI), at a test meal (13.30) and throughout the rest of the day (until 23.00). DESIGN: Six men each spent 24 h in a whole-body indirect calorimeter on three separate occasions during which they received breakfasts designed to match 75% of BMR and that comprised, on average 3.1 MJ of protein (HP), carbohydrate (HC) or fat (HF), respectively, the remainder being split between the other two macronutrients. Every item of the ad libitum diet comprised 13% protein, 40% fat and 47% carbohydrate by energy, with an energy density of 550 kJ/100 g. RESULTS: Subjectively-rated pleasantness did not differ between the breakfasts, or any of the subsequent ad libitum meals. Subjective hunger was significantly greater during the hours between breakfast and lunch after the HF (26) treatment relative to the HP (18) or HC (18 mm) meals (P < 0.001), although the HP treatment suppressed hunger to a greater extent than the other two treatments over 24 h. However, mean ad libitum lunch intakes were similar at 5.38, 5.30 and 5.18 MJ (NS) on the HP, HC and HF treatments, respectively. After-lunch intakes were also very similar at 6.14, 6.18 and 5.83 MJ (NS). Mean 24-h energy expenditure amounted to 11.12, 11.14 and 10.93 MJ, respectively, producing energy balances of 5.71, 5.83 and 5.04 MJ (NS), respectively. The HP, HF and HC breakfasts led to enhanced P, F and C oxidation, respectively (P < 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Large HP, HC or HF breakfasts led to detectable changes in hunger that were not of sufficient magnitude to influence lunch-time intake 5 h later, or EI for the rest of the day. A single positive balance of each macronutrient can be buffered by oxidation and storage capacity, without leading to changes in meal-to-meal EI, when subjects feed ad libitum on unfamiliar diets of fixed composition.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

School Breakfast Program and school performance.

To test the hypothesis that participation in the School Breakfast Program by low-income children is associated with improvements in standardized achievement test scores and in rates of absence and tardiness, children in grades 3 through 6 were studied in the Lawrence, Mass, public schools, where the School Breakfast Program was begun at the start of the second semester 1986-1987 school year. The changes in scores on a standardized achievement test and in rates of absence and tardiness before and after the implementation of the School Breakfast Program for children participating in the program were compared with those of children who also qualified but did not participate. Controlling for other factors, participation in the School Breakfast Program contributed positively to the 1987 Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills battery total scale score and negatively to 1987 tardiness and absence rates. These findings suggest that participation in the School Breakfast Program is associated with significant improvements in academic functioning among low-income elementary school children.

Absenteeism↗

PubMed1996

Effect of breakfast timing on the cognitive functions of elementary school students.

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of breakfast timing on selected cognitive functions of elementary school students. DESIGN: A 2-week randomized control intervention trial. SETTING: Five elementary schools. SUBJECTS: The subjects comprised 569 children, 51% of them boys, aged 11 to 13 years; the children were in grades 5 through 6 (17 classes). The subjects lived in different areas and had different socioeconomic backgrounds. INTERVENTION: Each subject was tested twice, by 2 versions of the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test, 2 alternative forms of the logical memory subtest of the revised Wechsler Memory Scale, and 2 versions of the Benton Visual Retention Test. On the first test, before any nutritional intervention, the subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire about their food intake on the day of testing. Two thirds of the subjects received 200 ml of 3%-fat milk and 30 g of sugared cornflakes for the next 14 days, and all the subjects were reexamined on the 15th day. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Scoring on the different tests was compared with baseline scores. RESULTS: After 15 days, children who ate breakfast at school scored notably higher on most of the test modules than did children who ate breakfast at home and children who did not at breakfast. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that routinely eating breakfast 2 hours prior to being tested does not improve cognitive functions in 11- to 13-year-old elementary school students, but food supplementation 30 minutes prior to taking a test notably improves scoring. We suggest further studies on the relationship between meal content, feeding time, and scholastic performance.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Breakfast reduces declines in attention and memory over the morning in schoolchildren.

Twenty-nine schoolchildren were tested throughout the morning on 4 successive days, having a different breakfast each day (either of the cereals Cheerios or Shreddies, glucose drink or No breakfast). A series of computerised tests of attention, working memory and episodic secondary memory was conducted prior to breakfast and again 30, 90, 150 and 210 min later. The glucose drink and No breakfast conditions were followed by declines in attention and memory, but the declines were significantly reduced in the two cereal conditions. This study provides objective evidence that a typical breakfast of cereal rich in complex carbohydrates can help maintain mental performance over the morning.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Effect of sucrose in breakfast items on pleasantness and food intake in the elderly.

This study was designed to determine the differences between young and elderly people on the perceived intensity and pleasantness of sucrose in foods, in relation to their food intake. First, a group of 35 young subjects (mean age: 22 +/- 2 years) and 29 elderly subjects (mean age: 79 +/- 6 years) judged the intensity and the pleasantness of 5 series of breakfast items: orange lemonade, strawberry jam, strawberry yoghurt, chocolate paste, and grain porridge, each with 5 geometrically spaced sucrose concentration levels. On average, the elderly people had a lower slope of the sucrose psychophysical function. Optimal preferred sucrose concentrations were higher for the elderly compared to the young. The second phase in the study concerned the effects of the different optimal sucrose concentrations in foods on food intake. The second experiment dealt with 2 different optimal preferred sucrose concentrations (elderly vs. young subjects) in the food items: orange lemonade, strawberry and blueberry jam, and strawberry and blueberry yoghurt, served during breakfast. A group of 33 young people (mean age: 23 +/- 2 years) and 25 elderly subjects (mean age: 82 +/- 5 years) participated in a crossover study of 2 5-day (breakfast) treatments. Subjects are ad lib from these foods and other items such as bread, coffee, and tea. The results showed that the sucrose concentration had no effect on the absolute amount consumed, although total energy intake of the breakfast increased with the higher sucrose foods. No clear difference was found in pleasantness between the 2 breakfasts with the different sucrose concentrations. These findings indicate that a flavor concentration evaluated as being most pleasant by the elderly with the help of small amounts of stimuli (in a lab setting) does not necessarily predict the pleasantness and the food intake behaviour in realistic settings.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Genetic and environmental factors in breakfast eating patterns.

Despite many studies on the prevalence of breakfast eating, we know little about factors that determine breakfast eating patterns. Our aim was to find out to which extent breakfast eating frequency is influenced by genetic and environmental factors using twin and twin-family models in a population sample of 16-year-old twins (n = 5250) and their parents (n = 4663). In common effects sex-limitation models, additive genetic effects explained 41% (95% CI: 21-63%) of the variance in breakfast eating in girls and 66% (95% CI: 47-79%) in boys, and common environmental effects 45% (95% CI: 23-62%) in girls and 14% (95% CI: 5-29%) in boys. Of twin-family models, phenotypic assortment models fitted the data best. Heritability estimates increased somewhat (72%, 95% CI: 46-98% in girls and 63%, 95% CI: 38-89%) in boys. Common family environment remained substantial in both sexes. Cultural transmission was nonsignificant. The relative influence of genetic and family factors on adolescent breakfast eating frequency differs by sex and is generation-specific.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Relationship between habitual breakfast and intellectual performance (logical reasoning) in well-nourished schoolchildren of Madrid (Spain).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationships between habitual breakfast habits and performance in verbal aptitude, logical reasoning and mathematical tests in a group of well-nourished scholars from Madrid. DESIGN: The study subjects were 180 children between 9 and 13 y of age. A dietetic study was undertaken using a 7-day food record. Scholastic aptitude was examined using the scholastic aptitude test (SAT-1) test. RESULTS: Breakfast made up 19.1% of total daily intake. No differences were found between subjects in terms of personal data or total diet with respect to whether they habitually took adequate breakfasts (AB) (ie, more than 20% of daily energy being provided by this meal) or inadequate breakfasts (IB) (less than 20%). However, AB subjects achieved better reasoning scores in the SAT-1 test. CONCLUSIONS: The normal breakfast habits of schoolchildren should be taken into account when studying diet-mental function relationships, even when studying well-nourished populations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Validation of a self-completion measure of breakfast foods, snacks and fruits and vegetables consumed by 9- to 11-year-old schoolchildren.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the validity and reliability of a dietary recall questionnaire, designed for group-level comparisons of foods eaten at breakfast and intake of fruits, vegetables, sweet items and crisps. DESIGN: Validity was assessed relative to 24-h dietary recall interviews, and reliability by comparing the baseline data with 4-month follow-up data. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: Fifty-eight schools took part in the validity assessments, with 374 children completing both measures. Reliability was assessed using 29 schools, with 1233 children at baseline and 1033 at follow-up. Children were aged 9-11 years and schools were located in socio-economically deprived areas of Wales. RESULTS: Results indicated moderate to substantial agreements for most foods eaten at breakfast on the day of reporting and fair to moderate agreements for breakfast foods the previous day. For items throughout the rest of the previous day, agreement was fair to substantial during school hours, but slight after school. Correlations were moderate in terms of 'healthy' items and 'unhealthy' items consumed at breakfast on the day of reporting, but weaker for the previous breakfast. Correlations between measures in terms of fruits, vegetables, sweet items and crisps throughout the rest of the previous day were fair to moderate. The measure demonstrated fair to substantial group-level reliability. CONCLUSIONS: The questionnaire, while subject to a number of limitations, gives an adequately valid and reliable overview of selected aspects of children's diet. It is likely to be of value at group-level in randomized controlled trials of school-based interventions.

Child↗

PubMed1998

Effect of breakfast fat content on glucose tolerance and risk factors of atherosclerosis and thrombosis.

Twenty-four middle-aged healthy men were given a low-fat high-carbohydrate (5.5 g fat; L), or a moderately-fatty, (25.7 g fat; M) breakfast of similar energy contents for 28 d. Other meals were under less control. An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was given at 09.00 hours on day 1 before treatment allocation and at 13.30 hours on day 29. There were no significant treatment differences in fasting serum values, either on day 1 or at the termination of treatments on day 29. The following was observed on day 29: (1) the M breakfast led to higher OGTT C-peptide responses and higher areas under the curves (AUC) of OGTT serum glucose and insulin responses compared with the OGTT responses to the L breakfast (P < 0.05); (2) treatment M failed to prevent OGTT glycosuria, eliminated with treatment L; (3) serum non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) AUC was 59% lower with treatment L than with treatment M, between 09.00 and 13.20 hours (P < 0.0001), and lower with treatment L than with treatment M during the OGTT (P = 0.005); (4) serum triacylglycerol (TAG) concentrations were similar for both treatments, especially during the morning, but their origins were different during the afternoon OGTT when the Svedberg flotation unit 20-400 lipid fraction was higher with treatment L than with treatment M (P = 0.016); plasma apolipoprotein B-48 level with treatment M was not significantly greater than that with treatment L (P = 0.086); (5) plasma tissue plasminogen-activator activity increased after breakfast with treatment L (P = 0.0008), but not with treatment M (P = 0.80). Waist:hip circumference was positively correlated with serum insulin and glucose AUC and with fasting LDL-cholesterol. Waist:hip circumference and serum TAG and insulin AUC were correlated with factors of thrombus formation; and the OGTT NEFA and glucose AUC were correlated. A small difference in fat intake at breakfast has a large influence on circulating diurnal NEFA concentration, which it is concluded influences adversely glucose tolerance up to 6 h later.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

A comparison of the short-term kinetics of zinc metabolism in women during fasting and following a breakfast meal.

The physiological importance and mechanism of the postprandial fall in plasma Zn concentration is not well understood. In order to gain further information on this apparent redistribution of plasma Zn, a stable isotope, 70Zn, was used to study the effect of a breakfast meal on plasma Zn kinetics. Nine women participated in two trials, a fasting trial and a breakfast-meal trial; five of the women participated in a third trial in which the energy content of the breakfast meal was doubled. At each trial, 0.1 mg of 70Zn was infused intravenously, and the plasma disappearance of the isotope was analysed using a two-compartment model of Zn kinetics. Plasma Zn concentration fell significantly following the two trials in which the subjects were given meals, reaching low points that were 13 and 19%, respectively, below concentrations at comparable times during the fasting trial. Kinetic analysis revealed that after the doubled breakfast meal there was a significant fall (P < 0.007) in the size of the most rapidly turning over Zn pool (pool (a)) from 2.90 (SE 0.13) mg in the fasting state to 2.47 (SE 0.14) mg postprandially. The fractional turnover rate of pool (a) to other extravascular Zn pools, i.e. outside the two-compartment system, was also significantly elevated after the doubled breakfast meal (P < 0.05). These results suggest that the decline in plasma Zn concentration following a meal is due to a redistribution of Zn from the plasma to other more slowly turning over extravascular pools that may be involved in the assimilation and metabolism of fuels following food intake.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Stress, breakfast cereal consumption and objective signs of upper respiratory tract illnesses.

Recent research has shown that both negative life events and breakfast cereal consumption are associated with the incidence and severity of subjective symptoms of upper respiratory tract illnesses (URTIs) Two studies were conducted to examine whether objective markers of illness were also associated with stress and breakfast cereal consumption. The results from the first study showed that regular breakfast cereal consumption was associated with lower sub-lingual temperatures in volunteers with URTIs. Stress had no effect on temperature. In the second study nasal secretion weight was lower in regular breakfast cereal consumers but was not influenced by stress. These studies suggest that breakfast cereal consumption is associated with reduced illness severity and that this does not reflect stress levels. Further research is now required to determine whether such results are directly due to cereal consumption or reflect correlated attributes, such as other aspects of the diet.

Body Temperature↗

PubMed2005

Ghrelin response to carbohydrate-enriched breakfast is related to insulin.

BACKGROUND: Ghrelin plays an important role in the regulation of food intake. Little is known about how ghrelin concentrations are modified by dietary factors. OBJECTIVE: We examined the effects of both amount and type of carbohydrate on ghrelin concentrations and all correlations among the variables ghrelin, glucose, insulin, leptin, and all 4 subjective measures of appetite. DESIGN: Twenty healthy nonobese men were studied in a double-blind, randomized, crossover design. Subjective measures of appetite and concentrations of ghrelin, glucose, insulin, and leptin were frequently assessed for 4 h after liquid breakfast meals differing in energy content and carbohydrate structure-ie, water, low-calorie (LC) meal, high-calorie simple carbohydrate (HC-SC) meal, and high-calorie complex carbohydrate (HC-CC) meal. RESULTS: Ghrelin concentrations decreased after the HC-SC breakfast by 41%, after the HC-CC breakfast by 33%, and after the LC breakfast by 24%. No significant differences in ghrelin concentration among the 3 breakfasts were observed until 120 min. Ghrelin concentrations were correlated with subjective measures of hunger (r=0.51) and fullness (r=-0.44). The percentage decrease in ghrelin between 0 and 30 min was inversely correlated with the percentage increases in insulin (r=-0.76) and glucose (r=-0.79) but not with changes in leptin (r=0.10). The percentage changes in ghrelin concentrations between 30 and 180 min were correlated with the percentage changes in insulin (r=-0.53) and leptin (r=-0.47) but not with changes in glucose (r=0.22). CONCLUSION: The results support the hypothesis that ghrelin requires postgastric feedback, which may be regulated through insulin.

Adult↗

PubMed1979

Absorption of iron from breakfast meals.

The absorption of nonheme iron from nine common Western type breakfasts was studied in 129 subjects using extrinsic labeling with radioiron. In one group the iron absorption from a continental type of breakfast served with coffee was standardized against the absorption from a reference dose of derrous ascorbate (3 mg Fe). In all subsequent experiments the absorption from this breakfast was compared with one of the other breakfast meals served on alternate days and each labeled with a different radioiron isotope. The bioavailability of iron in the different breakfast meals varied markedly. There was almost a 6-fold idfference in absorption (0.07 to 0.40 mg) despite of the fact that the iron content only varied from 2.8 to 4.2 mg. The most marked effect was seen with tea which reduced the absorption to less than half and with orange juice which increased the absorption two and a half times. The present findings must be considered when giving dietary advice to groups of subjects who are known to have a critical iron balance. The present results also imply that an evaluation of the iron nutrition in a population cannot only be based on the daily dietary intake of iron but must also include the bioavailability of iron in frequently consumed meals.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Breakfast, blood glucose, and cognition.

This article compares the findings of three studies that explored the role of increased blood glucose in improving memory function for subjects who ate breakfast. An initial improvement in memory function for these subjects was found to correlate with blood glucose concentrations. In subsequent studies, morning fasting was found to adversely affect the ability to recall a word list and a story read aloud, as well as recall items while counting backwards. Failure to eat breakfast did not affect performance on an intelligence test. It was concluded that breakfast consumption preferentially influences tasks requiring aspects of memory. In the case of both word list recall and memory while counting backwards, the decline in performance associated with not eating breakfast was reversed by the consumption of a glucose-supplemented drink. Although a morning fast also affected the ability to recall a story read aloud, the glucose drink did not reverse this decline. It appears that breakfast consumption influences cognition via several mechanisms, including an increase in blood glucose.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Is intake of breakfast cereals related to total and cause-specific mortality in men?

BACKGROUND: Prospective studies suggested that substituting whole-grain products for refined-grain products lowers the risks of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) in women. Although breakfast cereals are a major source of whole and refined grains, little is known about their direct association with the risk of premature mortality. OBJECTIVE: We prospectively evaluated the association between whole- and refined-grain breakfast cereal intakes and total and CVD-specific mortality in a cohort of US men. DESIGN: We examined 86,190 US male physicians aged 40-84 y in 1982 who were free of known CVD and cancer at baseline. RESULTS: During 5.5 y, we documented 3114 deaths from all causes, including 1381 due to CVD (488 myocardial infarctions and 146 strokes). Whole-grain breakfast cereal intake was inversely associated with total and CVD-specific mortality, independent of age; body mass index; smoking; alcohol intake; physical activity; history of diabetes, hypertension, or high cholesterol; and use of multivitamins. Compared with men who rarely or never consumed whole-grain cereal, men in the highest category of whole-grain cereal intake (> or = 1 serving/d) had multivariate-estimated relative risks of total and CVD-specific mortality of 0.83 (95% CI: 0.73, 0.94; P for trend < 0.001) and 0.80 (0.66, 0.97; P for trend < 0.001), respectively. In contrast, total and refined-grain breakfast cereal intakes were not significantly associated with total and CVD-specific mortality. These findings persisted in analyses stratified by history of type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and high cholesterol. CONCLUSIONS: Both total mortality and CVD-specific mortality were inversely associated with whole-grain but not refined-grain breakfast cereal intake. These prospective data highlight the importance of distinguishing whole-grain from refined-grain cereals in the prevention of chronic diseases.

Adult↗