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Results for “Cognitive Reflection”

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PubMed1997

Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis.

OBJECTIVE: Clinical heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease has been widely observed. One factor that may influence the expression of dementia in Alzheimer's disease is premorbid intellectual ability. It has been hypothesized that premorbid ability, as measured by educational experience, reflects a cognitive reserve that can affect the clinical expression of Alzheimer's disease. The authors investigated the relation between estimates of premorbid intellectual function and cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with Alzheimer's disease to test the effect of differing levels of premorbid ability on neurophysiological dysfunction. METHOD: In a resting state with eyes closed and ears occluded, 46 patients with Alzheimer's disease were evaluated with positron emission tomography and [18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose to determine cerebral metabolism. Premorbid intellectual ability was assessed by a demographics-based IQ estimate and performance on a measure of word-reading ability. RESULTS: After the authors controlled for demographic characteristics and dementia severity, both estimates of premorbid intellectual ability were inversely correlated with cerebral metabolism in the prefrontal, pre-motor, and left superior parietal association regions. In addition, the performance-based estimate (i.e., reading ability) was inversely correlated with metabolism in the anterior cingulate, paracentral, right orbitofrontal, and left thalamic regions, after demographic and clinical variables were controlled for. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that higher levels of premorbid ability are associated with greater pathophysiological effects of Alzheimer's disease among patients of similar dementia severity levels. These findings provide support for a cognitive reserve that can alter the clinical expression of dementia and influence the neurophysiological heterogeneity observed in Alzheimer's disease.

Aged↗

PubMed1997

Memory activation and expectancy as prospective predictors of alcohol and marijuana use.

This study examined whether indicators of drug-related memory associations predicted drug use prospectively. The predictive effects of outcome expectancies, sensation seeking, and other variables also were investigated. The results revealed that the memory association measures significantly predicted subsequent drug use. Outcome expectancies and sensation seeking predicted alcohol use, but not marijuana use. The findings suggest 2 possibly different aspects of cognition involved in drug use motivation: (a) a memory activation or implicit cognition component, representing the effects of memory associations that are prompted relatively spontaneously by the prevailing motivational and situational circumstances and (b) an outcome expectancy component, which is more likely to reflect explicit cognitions involved in introspection and deliberate decision-making processes.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Introduction to special section: theoretical developments in the cognitive psychotherapies.

The cognitive psychotherapies have developed and substantially differentiated since their inception in the 1950s. Six major themes in their theoretical development are discussed: (a) the differentiation of rationalist and constructivist therapies and metatheories of knowing; (b) the acknowledgement of social, biological, and embodiment processes in therapy; (c) the recognition of unconscious processes; (d) an increasing focus on self-organizing and self-protective processes in life span personality development, with such processes being embedded in interpersonal and social system dynamics; (e) a shift toward different views of emotionality and the incorporation of experiential techniques; and (f) a synergistic involvement in the psychotherapy integration movement. The cognitive psychotherapies reflect remarkable activity, a point illustrated and elaborated in the articles that constitute this special section.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1986

An examination of the relation of individual difference variables to loneliness.

This study investigated the relation of five individual difference variables (extroversion, depression, self-esteem, neuroticism, and attitude toward others) to loneliness. The relative contributions of two different models that might explain these relations were examined. One model suggests that individual difference variables are related to loneliness through the mediation of social network variables; that is, individual difference variables may reduce people's motivation and/or ability to build and maintain social relationships, which in turn leads to loneliness. The second model, the cognitive bias model, states that both the individual difference variables and loneliness are influenced by the same intrapersonal, cognitive processes. Some people are prone to negative affect and tend to evaluate themselves and their relationships negatively. The relations of self-esteem, neuroticism, and depression to loneliness were hypothesized to reflect the cognitive bias model, while extroversion and attitudes toward others were hypothesized to be related to loneliness through the mediation of social network variables. Eighty-two female and 42 male adults completed measures of loneliness and the five individual difference variables, as well as an instrument assessing their social networks. The results indicated partial support for both models for each of the individual difference variables. Together, the two models did a good job of explaining the correlations of the individual difference variables and loneliness. The implications of these findings, as well as their relation to previous research, are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1985

Some cognitive correlates of schizophrenic illnesses.

A battery of tests was developed to assess verbal, non-verbal and mixed cognitive functions. Interest was based on pattern of response rather than absolute scores. The subjects were 167 men held in prison on criminal charges or in a maximum security hospital after conviction. The present paper deals exclusively with two subgroups: the 61 schizophrenic men and the 41 men with no psychiatric disorder. The schizophrenic group as a whole presented a very different cognitive pattern from the 'normal' men. First, with the exception of the vocabulary subtest of the WAIS, the schizophrenics were inferior on all tests, whether verbal, non-verbal or mixed function. Secondly, they showed considerably more variation within subtests. The schizophrenic sample was therefore subdivided into four clinical groups. Each showed a distinctive cognitive profile. It is argued that these cognitive differences reflect real differences in the disorder and type of illness being experienced by members of these subgroups.

Cognition Disorders↗

PubMed1976

Reflection-impulsivity and need for achievement in emotionally disturbed children.

Reflection-impulsivity is the cognitive dimension proposed by Kagan and his colleagues to describe the differences in children's resolution to response uncertainty. Impulsive children tend to respond quickly without considering all of the available alternatives and consequently make many mistakes. Reflecttive children consider all of the available alternatives, withhold responding until they have a high probability of being correct, and consequently make few mistakes. The primary dynamic underlying a reflective cognitive style is hypothesized to be a fear of making a mistake: the greater the fear, the more reflective the child is and the more cautiously he performs. On the other hand, minimal anxiety over a potentially inaccurate answer is likely to result in an impulsive performance.

Achievement↗

PubMed1999

The nonlinear, complex sequential organization of behavior in schizophrenic patients: neurocognitive strategies and clinical correlations.

BACKGROUND: Thought disorder is a hallmark of schizophrenia and can be inferred from disorganized behavior. Measures of the sequential organization of behavior are important because they reflect the cognitive processes of the selection and sequencing of behavioral elements, which generate observable and analyzable behavioral patterns. In this context, sequences of choices generated by schizophrenic patients in a two-choice guessing task fluctuate significantly, which reflects an "oscillating dysregulation" between highly predictable and highly unpredictable subsequences within a single test session. In this study, we aimed to clarify the significance of dysregulation by seeing whether demographic, clinical, neuropsychological, and psychological measures predict the degree of dysregulation observed on this two-choice task. METHODS: Thirty schizophrenic patients repeatedly performed a LEFT or RIGHT key press that was followed by a stimulus, which occurred randomly on the left or right side of the computer screen. Thus, the stimulus location had nothing to do with the key press behavior. The range of key press sequence predictabilities as measured by the dynamical entropy was used to quantify the dysregulation of response sequences and reflects the range of fixity and randomness of the responses. A factor analysis was performed and step-wise multiple regression analyses were used to relate the factor scores to demographic, clinical, symptomatic, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and Rorschach variables. RESULTS: The LEFT/RIGHT key press sequences were determined by three factors: 1) the degree of win-stay/lose-shift strategy; 2) the degree of contextual influence on the current choice; and 3) the degree of dysregulation on the choice task. Demographic and clinical variables did not predict any of the three response patterns on the choice task. In contrast, the WCST and Rorschach test predicted performance on various factors of choice task response patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Schizophrenic patients employ several rules, i.e., "win-stay/lose-shift" and "decide according to the previous choice," that fluctuate significantly when generating sequences on this task, confirming that a basic behavioral dysregulation occurs in a single schizophrenic subject across a single test session. The organization or the "temporal architecture" of the behavioral sequences is not related to symptoms per se, but is related to deficits in executive functioning, problem solving, and perceptual organizational abilities.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Emotion-induced changes in human medial prefrontal cortex: II. During anticipatory anxiety.

Regional cerebral blood flow (BF) was examined in the human medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) with positron emission tomography during anticipatory anxiety. Transient anxiety was induced in normal subjects by having them anticipate a painful shock to the fingers of one hand. BF was decreased during anticipatory anxiety, relative to an eyes-closed resting condition, in two regions of the MPFC (Brodmann Areas 10/32 and 24/25). BF decreases in these areas were inversely correlated with anxiety self rating, such that the least anxious subjects exhibited the largest BF reductions, whereas the most anxious subjects showed no significant BF reduction or a slight increase. BF changes in MPFC and in the midbrain were correlated with each other and with anxiety self rating. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that BF reductions in MPFC, previously observed in cognitive tasks, reflect a dynamic balance between focused attention and subject anxiety and may occur from a functionally active baseline or default state. The characterization of such relationships within the human brain enables new insights into the integration of cognition and emotion.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Reducing diagnostic errors in medicine: what's the goal?

This review considers the feasibility of reducing or eliminating the three major categories of diagnostic errors in medicine: "No-fault errors" occur when the disease is silent, presents atypically, or mimics something more common. These errors will inevitably decline as medical science advances, new syndromes are identified, and diseases can be detected more accurately or at earlier stages. These errors can never be eradicated, unfortunately, because new diseases emerge, tests are never perfect, patients are sometimes noncompliant, and physicians will inevitably, at times, choose the most likely diagnosis over the correct one, illustrating the concept of necessary fallibility and the probabilistic nature of choosing a diagnosis. "System errors" play a role when diagnosis is delayed or missed because of latent imperfections in the health care system. These errors can be reduced by system improvements, but can never be eliminated because these improvements lag behind and degrade over time, and each new fix creates the opportunity for novel errors. Tradeoffs also guarantee system errors will persist, when resources are just shifted. "Cognitive errors" reflect misdiagnosis from faulty data collection or interpretation, flawed reasoning, or incomplete knowledge. The limitations of human processing and the inherent biases in using heuristics guarantee that these errors will persist. Opportunities exist, however, for improving the cognitive aspect of diagnosis by adopting system-level changes (e.g., second opinions, decision-support systems, enhanced access to specialists) and by training designed to improve cognition or cognitive awareness. Diagnostic error can be substantially reduced, but never eradicated.

Cognition↗

PubMed1994

Cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized features of schizotypal personality.

While two factors are currently thought to underlie individual differences in schizotypal personality, three factors may best explain schizotypal traits. This study used confirmatory factor analysis to assess five competing models of schizotypal personality in the general population: null model, one-factor model, simple two-factor model, Kendler two-factor model, and three-factor model. The computer program LISREL was used to analyze Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire subscale scores that reflect the nine traits of schizotypal personality. The scores were obtained from (1) a sample of 822 undergraduates and (2) a replication sample of 102 subjects drawn from the community. Results indicate replicable support for a three-factor model reflecting cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized latent factors. Low intercorrelations between the first two factors and the lack of fit by a one-factor model are partially inconsistent with recent notions that a single vulnerability dimension underlies schizotypal personality. It is argued that future investigations should assess the correlates of all three schizotypal factors in clinical and nonclinical samples in addition to the two more traditional factors. It is hypothesized that three factors of schizophrenic symptomatology observed in recent studies may reflect an exaggeration of three analogous factors found in the general population.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Risperidone treatment of schizophrenia: improvement in psychopathology and neuropsychological tests.

The aim of the study was to assess the effects of short-term risperidone treatment on schizophrenic symptoms and on neuropsychological frontal tests, and to find an association between the improvements in these two kinds of domains. Twenty-two schizophrenic patients treated with risperidone (2-6 mg/day) for 4 weeks were studied. Treatment with risperidone resulted in a significant decrease in the intensity of schizophrenic symptoms and in an improvement in all neuropsychological tests applied. A robust correlation was obtained between the amelioration of negative symptoms and improvements in many neuropsychological tests, specifically with amelioration in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), perseverative errors. Some correlation was also found with the improvement of positive symptoms, specifically with amelioration in the WCST, completed categories. The results may suggest a common neurobiological substrate of negative and cognitive symptoms, reflected in prefrontal cortex pathology and in therapeutic response to atypical antipsychotics.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1984

Reflection-impulsivity and short-term memory in emotionally disturbed children.

In an investigation of the relationship between the reflection-impulsivity cognitive dimension and short-term memory in emotionally disturbed children, 42 Ss were administered the Matching Familiar Figures Test and the Visual-Aural Digit Span Test. Analysis of covariance indicated that on all memory tasks the reflective Ss were better than the impulsive subjects.

Affective Symptoms↗

PubMed1995

Dopamine D1 receptor ligands modulate cognitive performance and hippocampal acetylcholine release in memory-impaired aged rats.

The possible modulation by D1 drugs of learning abilities of a population of aged memory-impaired animals was investigated in the present study. The level of D1/[3H]SCH 23390 receptors was first examined by quantitative autoradiography to ascertain if cognitive deficits seen in these animals could be related to alterations in the levels of these receptors. No significant differences in [3H]SCH 23390 binding were observed in any of the brain areas examined between young, and aged memory-unimpaired and aged memory-impaired animals. However, the cognitive deficits of the aged-impaired rats were modulated by D1 drugs. The D1 agonists SKF 38393 and SKF 81297 (3.0 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the latency period to find a hidden platform in the Morris Water Maze, reflecting improved cognitive functions, while the D1 antagonist SCH 23390 (0.05 mg/kg, i.p.) had no overall significant effect. Moreover, the D1 agonist SKF 38393 increased, whereas the antagonist inhibited, in vivo hippocampal acetylcholine release. Taken together, these results suggest that functional hippocampal acetylcholine-dopamine interactions exist in aged memory-impaired rats. More importantly, the cognitive deficits seen in the aged-impaired rats can be attenuated by stimulations of D1 receptors, hence suggesting an alternative approach to alleviate the cognitive deficits seen in the aged brain.

2,3,4,5-Tetrahydro-7,8-dihydroxy-1-phenyl-1H-3-ben↗

PubMed1997

Aerobic capacity and cognitive performance in a cross-sectional aging study.

In a population unselected for aerobic fitness status, aerobic fitness (VO2max) and its interaction with age were used to predict performance on several cognitive measures known to be affected by chronological age. It was hypothesized that, in particular, cognitively demanding tasks would be sensitive to aerobic capacity. Healthy subjects between 24 and 76 yr of age (N = 132) were recruited from a larger study into determinants of cognitive aging (Maastricht Aging Study-MAAS). All participants took part in a submaximal bicycle ergometer protocol and an extensive neurocognitive examination, including tests of intelligence, verbal memory, and simple and complex cognitive speed. Participants engaged more hours a week in aerobic sports and felt healthier than the nonparticipants of the same age did. No group differences were found in the basic anthropometric characteristics height, weight, and BMI. Two of four subtasks that reflect complex cognitive speed (Stroop color/word interference and Concept Shifting Test) showed main and interaction effects with age of aerobic capacity in a hierarchical regression analysis, accounting for up to 5% of variance in parameter score after correction for age, sex, and intelligence main effects. These findings fit well within a moderator model of aerobic fitness in cognitive aging. They add to the notion that aerobic fitness may selectively and age-dependently act on cognitive processes, in particular those that require relatively large attentional resources.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Interhemispheric transfer deficit in alexithymia: an experimental study.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research has demonstrated an association between alexithymia and a deficit in interhemispheric communication in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. The purpose of this study was to evaluate this association in a nonclinical sample. METHODS: The efficiency of interhemispheric transfer was assessed in 14 alexithymic and 15 nonalexithymic right-handed, male, undergraduate university students using a tactile finger localization task. RESULTS: The nonalexithymic subjects were significantly more efficient at transferring information between the cerebral hemispheres than the alexithymic subjects. CONCLUSIONS: This finding provides further evidence of an interhemispheric transfer deficit in alexithymia and suggests that an alexithymic cognitive style reflects poor integration of the information processing of the two cerebral hemispheres.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Formal thought disorder in offspring of schizophrenic parents.

OBJECTIVE: We examined potential early markers of schizophrenia using measures of formal thought disorder in offspring of parents with schizophrenia, other mental illness and no mental illness. METHODS: Two blind raters coded formal thought disorder in adolescent/early adult offspring of 42 schizophrenic, 39 other mental illness, and 36 no mental illness parents. In addition to parental diagnosis, we compared the individual offspring diagnosis with severity of formal thought disorder. Within the schizophrenia, other mental illness and no mental illness offspring groups, we examined the relationship between severity of formal thought disorder and performance on cognitive and motor tasks. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences in formal thought disorder by parent or offspring diagnoses. Within the offspring group of parents with schizophrenia, the subjects with higher formal thought disorder scores performed significantly worse on the cognitive battery than those with lower formal thought disorder scores. Offspring of the other mental illness group with higher formal thought disorder scores, however, showed more deficits on motor tasks than those with lower formal thought disorder scores. CONCLUSION: Formal thought disorder may reflect underlying cognitive dysfunction in the offspring of parents with schizophrenia. Motor dysfunction in the offspring of parents with other psychiatric illness might be associated with formal thought disorder.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Health of the Nation Outcome Scales for elderly people (HoNOS 65+).

BACKGROUND: Health of the Nation Outcome Scales (HoNOS) have been developed to measure of outcomes in people with mental health problems. AIMS: The particular physical and cognitive problems affecting older people requires a specific scale for their measurement. We describe the development of such a scale, named HoNOS 65+. METHOD: Pilot, validity and reliability studies were carried out on an amended scale. Validity was assessed by comparison with existing scales reflecting depression, cognitive function, psychiatric symptomatology, activities of daily living and functional abilities. Reliability was measured in two centres. RESULTS: HoNOS 65+ was successfully amended to include specific aspects of mental health problems in older people including the phenomenology of depression, delusions occurring in the presence of dementia, incontinence and agitation/restlessness. HoNOS 65+ was able to discriminate between people suffering from organic and functional illnesses. Correlations with other scales indicated reasonable validity. Reliability was satisfactory. CONCLUSIONS: Aversion of HoNOS 65+ is presented (see pp. 435-438, this issue) which is appropriate for use in elderly people with mental health problems.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1994

A method for identifying short-latency human cognitive potentials in single trials by scalp mapping.

Studies of scalp-recorded brain event-related potentials in humans currently depend on the electronic averaging of many responses to the stimulus. In non-averaged single responses, it is sometimes possible to see late components such as the so-called P300, but not the shorter latency components that are much smaller and masked in background noise. We tried to identify short-latency cognitive potentials evoked by finger stimulation by comparing single trial responses that are concomitantly recorded at the contralateral and ipsilateral parietal scalp respectively. We developed a single trial topographic mapping method that proved important for assessing whether any left-right difference at short latency indeed reflected genuine cognitive electrogeneses. These results make it possible to analyze on a trial-by-trial basis the short latency cognitive processing in somatic perception.

Adult↗