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PubMed2006

Gas cooking, kitchen ventilation, and asthma, allergic symptoms and sensitization in young children--the PIAMA study.

BACKGROUND: Several studies reported inconsistent associations between using gas for cooking and respiratory symptoms or lung function in children. Kitchen ventilation characteristics may modify the relationship between gas cooking and respiratory health. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of kitchen ventilation (while cooking) on the relationship between gas cooking, combustion product dispersal, and respiratory and allergic outcomes in children. METHODS: Data on respiratory and allergic symptoms and diagnoses were collected by yearly questionnaires in a population of over 3000 children participating in a birth cohort study on development of allergy and asthma. At 4 years of age, a sub-sample of 647 children provided blood samples for antibody testing. Data on gas cooking and kitchen ventilation were collected when the children were 5 years old. Based on these data a model was constructed to determine the chance of accumulation of combustion products (CACP) in the kitchen. RESULTS: No relationship was found between gas cooking and any of the respiratory or allergy outcomes except nasal symptoms. The overall results did not change when the 'CACP' was used as exposure variable instead, while the association for nasal symptoms decreased to borderline significance. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that gas cooking per se is associated with nasal symptoms in young children and not with the other respiratory symptoms that were investigated. Taking kitchen ventilation characteristics into account did not lead to different conclusions in this population where, according to the classification system, the majority of households using gas for cooking have insufficient kitchen ventilation.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗

PubMed2006

Traditional cooked vegetable dishes as important sources of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene in the diets of Indian urban and rural families.

BACKGROUND: Fresh vegetable produce is abundant during the winter season in Punjab. It is an important source of vitamins and minerals in the Punjabi diet, but the availability of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene from the vegetables is altered to varying degrees when they are subjected to traditional household processing methods. OBJECTIVE: To determine the importance of traditional cooked vegetable dishes as sources of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene among urban and rural families during the winter. METHODS: Information about vegetable consumption, storage, and cooking practices was collected from 60 families, 30 each from urban and rural areas of Ludhiana District, Punjab, India. Samples of the common cooked vegetable dishes were prepared in the laboratory by methods ascertained from the survey and analyzed for ascorbic acid and beta-carotene. RESULTS: The average total daily per capita consumption of vegetables by urban and rural families was 411.7 and 365.9 g, respectively. Cooked vegetable dishes provided 68.7% of the total vegetable intake for urban families and 85.0% for rural families. On average, the edible portion constituted 78.9% of the weight of the vegetables. Ten cooked vegetable dishes that were most frequently consumed by the families (mustard saag, potato-spinach, potato-fenugreek, potato-brinjal, potato-cauliflower, potato-capsicum, potato-carrots, potato-beans, potato-peas, and cabbage-peas) were selected for preparation in the laboratory and nutritional analysis. The average concentrations of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene in the cooked vegetable dishes were 46.0 mg/100 g and 794.2 microg/100 g fresh weight, respectively. The percentage losses of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene during preparation and cooking were 26.1% and 25.9%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: For adult Indian men and women, the recommended dietary allowance of ascorbic acid is 40 mg, and that of beta-carotene is 2,400 microg. Cooked vegetable dishes provided 269.9% and 77.5% of the recommended dietary allowances of ascorbic acid and beta-carotene, respectively, indicating that these dishes are good sources of these nutrients in the diets of both urban and rural families during the winter season.

Ascorbic Acid↗

PubMed2003

Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their carcinogenic potencies from cooking sources to the urban atmosphere.

Traffic has long been recognized as the major contributor to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations. However, this does not consider the contribution of cooking sources of PAHs. This study set out, first, to assess the characteristics of PAHs and their corresponding benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (B[a]Peq) emissions from cooking sources to the urban atmosphere. To illustrate the importance of cooking sources, PAH emissions from traffic sources were then calculated and compared. The entire study was conducted on a city located in southern Taiwan. PAH samples were collected from the exhaust stacks of four types of restaurant: Chinese, Western, fast food, and Japanese. For total PAHs, results show that the fractions of gaseous PAHs (range, 75.9-89.9%) were consistently higher than the fractions of particulate PAHs (range, 10.1-24.1%) in emissions from the four types of restaurant. But for total B[a]Peq, we found that the contributions of gaseous PAHs (range, 15.7-21.9%) were consistently lower than the contributions of particulate PAHs (range, 78.1-84.3%). For emission rates of both total PAHs and total B[a]Peq, a consistent trend was found for the four types of restaurant: Chinese (2,038 and 154 kg/year, respectively) > Western (258 and 20.4 kg/year, respectively) > fast food (31.4 and 0.104 kg/year, respectively) > Japanese (5.11 and 0.014 kg/year, respectively). By directly adapting the emission data obtained from Chinese restaurants, we found that emission rates on total PAHs and total B[a]Peq for home kitchen sources were 6,639 and 501 kg/year, respectively. By combining both restaurant sources and home kitchen sources, this study yielded emission rates of total PAHs and total B[a]Peq from cooking sources of the studied city of 8,973 and 675 kg/year, respectively. Compared with PAH emissions from traffic sources in the same city, we found that although the emission rates of total PAHs for cooking sources were significantly less than those for traffic sources (13,500 kg/year), the emission rates of total B[a]Peq for cooking sources were much higher than those for traffic sources (61.4 kg/year). The above results clearly indicate that although cooking sources are less important than traffic sources in contributing to total PAH emissions, PAH emissions from cooking sources might cause much more serious problems than traffic sources, from the perspective of carcinogenic potency.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMed2001

Various cooking methods and the flavonoid content in onion.

Onion is a major source of flavonoids and is cooked in various ways in the world. The major flavonoids in onion are two quercetin glycosides, quercetin 4'-O-beta-glucoside (Q4'G) and quercetin 3,4'-O-beta-diglucosides (Q3,4'G), which are recognized as bioactive substances that are good for our health. We have investigated the effect of cooking procedures on the content of antioxidants. We selected quercetin conjugates, total phenol compounds, and ascorbic acid to estimate the amount of flavonoid ingestion from onion. We examined the following cooking methods: boiling, frying with oil and butter, and microwave cooking. Various cooking methods do not consider the degradation of quercetin conjugates when cooking onion. Microwave cooking without water better retains flavonoids and ascorbic acid. Frying does not affect flavonoid intake. The boiling of onion leads to about 30% loss of quercetin glycosides, which transfers to the boiling water. At that time, the effect of additives on the quercetin conjugates is different according to the compounds. The hydrolysis of quercetin glycosides for daily cooking might occur with the addition of seasonings such as glutamic acid. Additional ferrous ions accelerated the loss of flavonoids.

Antioxidants↗

PubMed1995

Defining cooking salt intakes for patient counselling and policy making.

The role of salt (NaCl) in the development of high blood pressure has been a matter of debate, however, the Intersalt Study showed that sodium (Na) intake in various areas of the World is related to the slope of blood pressure with age. Accurate amounts of the total salt intake or that coming from a particular source are needed, both, for physicians who need to consider the salt intake of their patients and for public health workers who are in charge of the implementation of public health programs where salt is used as a carrier of other nutrients. An analysis of the literature suggests that exaggerated values for total salt intakes have often been obtained from indirect estimates; discretionary salt use, i.e. home-cooking salt has invariably been overestimated. A method is described for measuring the contribution of cooking salt to total salt intake since it is a confusing area where inappropriate methods have been used to assess its contribution. The method described is based on the use of small amounts of lithium carbonate fused with NaCl. Validation experiments were undertaken to determine the naturally occurring lithium (Li) in a number of foods including fresh, frozen and tinned vegetables, and the use of Li tagged salt for cooking vegetables and for direct use in cooked foods. We also assessed whether Li was taken up proportionally with Na into foods during cooking. In general vegetables contained variable but only small amounts of Li except aubergine and spinach, and Li was taken up proportionally with Na in a variety of vegetables. Results showed that 36, 35 and 21% of the salt added during cooking was recovered in carrots, runner beans and potatoes respectively, the rest being discarded in the cooking water. This suggest that about a third of salt added during the cooking of vegetables will be ingested by the household. Attempts to rely simply on the total use of household salt supplies will clearly exaggerate, markedly, the true intake of individuals.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

The effect of microwave and conventional cooking on the temperature profiles and microbial flora of minced beef.

Beef mince samples were cooked to the rare, medium and well done states by microwave and conventional oven methods. The raw samples all contained large numbers of contaminating organisms and low numbers of Listeria monocytogenes were detected in the majority of samples. A substantial proportion of the contaminating flora survived in mince cooked by microwaves to the rare, medium and well done states, prior to a 30-min standing period. Listeria monocytogenes survived in all samples cooked by microwaves to the rare state, prior to the standing period and was still present in one of three after the standing period. It was also detected in one of three samples cooked to medium prior to a standing period. This organism was not detected in mince cooked by conventional oven methods. In all the samples cooked by microwaves with a standing period and samples cooked to rare and medium by conventional oven, survival of some of the microflora occurred. The survival rate decreased with the severity of the cooking treatment.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Changes in the Dietary Fiber (Resistant Starch and Nonstarch Polysaccharides) Content of Cooked Flours Prepared from Three Chinese Indigenous Legume Seeds.

The effects of cooking on the dietary fiber (DF) content, which included resistant starch (RS) and nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP), of flours from Phaseolusangularis, Phaseolus calcaratus, and Dolichos lablab seeds, indigenous to China, were evaluated. The cooked legume flours were prepared by milling boiled and freeze-dried legume whole seeds. Total DF contents of all cooked flours were higher than those of the raw ones. The results showed an increase of NSP and RS to various extents with increasing cooking time of the flours. In the NSP of the legume flours, both the soluble and insoluble fractions increased during cooking, and a redistribution of the soluble and insoluble NSP components was observed. Generally, cooking increased the solubilization of the NSP in the legume seed flours, which might be important for their use as soup ingredients for therapeutic purposes. The increase of RS in the legume flours could be mainly due to the presence of cell-enclosed starch and retrograded starch formed during cooking. Such increase in the RS content of the cooked legume flours might have beneficial physiological effects for humans.

Journal Article↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The effect of cooking on veterinary drug residues in food: 2. levamisole.

The heat stability of levamisole was investigated. Results obtained indicated that the drug was stable in boiling water at 100 degrees C, but unstable at 260 degrees C in cooking oil, with a half-life of about 5 minutes. The effect of cooking (microwaving, boiling, roasting, grilling and frying) on levamisole residues in a range of fortified and incurred tissue was studied. No evidence of instability was obtained in any of the cooking methods investigated. Most observed net changes fell within the limits of the precision of the method once allowance for weight loss during cooking was made to counter an apparent increase in concentration. Roasting was the only method of cooking where a net loss of levamisole was observed. Insufficient juices were produced to permit analysis in this instance. The net loss of levamisole in the cooked tissue was similar to that found with other cooking methods, where the levamisole lost was found in the cooking liquid or juices. An assessment of homogeneity of the incurred tissue used in the investigation was made. The pig muscle was found not to be homogeneous with larger differences seen between different areas of the animal than within the same muscle. The findings of this investigation showed that data obtained from measurements on raw tissue are suitable for use in consumer exposure estimates and dietary intake calculations.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Effect of cooking and supplementation with different kinds of meats on the nutritional value of mash (Vigna mungo).

The study was conducted to determine the nutritional value of mash (Vigna mungo) in raw and cooked forms and as effected by supplementation with different kind of meat, i.e. poultry, mutton and beef at 10, 15 and 20% levels. Nutritional assessment of all mash-containing diets (without or with supplementation) was made by chemical analysis as well as through rat assay. Mash contained 23.83% protein. Cooking resulted in minor changes in nutrients. Mash had 1.79% lysine which was reduced by 35% on cooking. All other amino acids also showed losses during cooking. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) of diet containing raw mash was 1.9% and cooking improved it to 2.8%. True digestibility (TD) also showed a significant improvement. Supplementation of mash with different kinds of meat did not improve the PER significantly over unsupplemented diet containing cooked mash only. TD, however, was improved from 74.89% in cooked to 75.58-87.06% in supplemented diets. Similarly net protein utilization (NPU), as a result of meat supplementation, improved from 43.54% in cooked to 42.88%-51.96%. Higher PER, TD and NPU values were observed in diets containing mash supplemented with 20% level of different meats.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed2001

Volatile profiles and lipid oxidation of irradiated cooked chicken meat from laying hens fed diets containing conjugated linoleic acid.

The objective of this study was to determine the influence of dietary conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on lipid oxidation, volatile profiles, and sensory characteristics of irradiated cooked chicken meat. Forty-eight 27-wk-old White Leghorn hens were fed a diet containing 0, 1.25, 2.5, or 5.0% CLA. After 12 wk of feeding trial, hens were slaughtered, and boneless, skinless breast and thigh muscles were separated. Meats of three birds from a dietary treatment were pooled and ground together through a 9-mm and a 3-mm plate, and patties were prepared. Patties were individually packaged and cooked in a water bath at 85 C for 15 min. After cooling to room temperature, patties were repackaged in oxygen-permeable or oxygen-impermeable bags, irradiated at 0 or 3 kiloGray (kGy) with an electron beam irradiator, and analyzed for lipid oxidation, volatile profiles, and sensory characteristics at 0 and 5 d of storage at 4 C. Cooked meat patties from hens fed CLA diets had lower TBA-reactive substances values and produced less hexanal and pentanal than the control. The irradiated and nonirradiated cooked chicken meat with aerobic packaging developed severe lipid oxidation during the 5-d storage at 4 C. Irradiation accelerated lipid oxidation in aerobic-packaged cooked chicken meat, but its effect was not as significant as that of the packaging. No odor differences were found among the cooked chicken meats from the different dietary CLA treatments. The increased storage stability of cooked meat from hens fed CLA diets was caused by the increased saturated fatty acids and CLA content in meat lipids. Tissue CLA was stable from oxidative changes and had minimal effect on volatile production in irradiated and nonirradiated cooked chicken meat during storage.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed2005

Effect of cooked and raw egg consumption on ovalbumin content of human milk: a randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial.

BACKGROUND: Maternal avoidance of egg intake has been recommended to treat egg allergy in breastfed infants. OBJECTIVE: To determine if the concentration of ovalbumin (OVA) in human milk is directly related to the quantity and form of egg consumed by breastfeeding mothers. METHODS: Randomized, blinded, cross-over, intervention trial. Breastfeeding women (n = 41) attended four clinic days between 11 and 14 weeks of lactation and on each day were randomly allocated to receive a test breakfast, identical except for the egg content (no egg, one raw egg, half a cooked egg or one cooked egg). Breast milk samples were collected at two hourly intervals for 8 h and their OVA concentration measured by ELISA. RESULTS: There was a direct, dose-response between the amount of cooked egg ingested and the peak OVA concentration (no egg 0.05 ng/mL [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.01-0.11], half a cooked egg 2.24 ng/mL [95% CI, 0.57-3.91], one cooked egg 3.16 ng/mL [95% CI, 1.41-4.91], n = 41, P<0.05) as well as the total OVA excretion (no egg 0.18 ng/mL/h [95% CI, 0.04-0.39], half a cooked egg 4.93 ng/mL/h [95% CI, 1.40-8.46], one cooked egg 9.14 ng/mL/h [95% CI, 4.25-14.03], n = 41, P<0.05). The peak concentration and total OVA excretion in response to one raw egg did not differ from ingesting half a cooked egg. There was no detectable OVA in the breast milk of 24% (10/41) women up to 8 h after any egg challenge. CONCLUSION: OVA was detected in the breast milk of lactating women up to 8 h after a controlled intake of egg. A dose-response correlation was indicated. As excretion of OVA in human milk appears to be a normal phenomenon, further studies need to determine the threshold of OVA excretion that leads to symptoms in egg-allergic breastfed infants.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Household gas cooking: a risk factor for respiratory illnesses in preschool children.

AIMS: To explore the association of household gas cooking and respiratory illnesses in preschool children and their relation to outdoor air pollution. METHODS: Cross-sectional study among households that used gas stoves for cooking in two housing estates with contrasting air qualities in Hong Kong. A structured questionnaire was administered to parents of 426 children aged 0-6 years on their exposure to gas cooking and passive smoking, and the prevalence of respiratory illnesses. RESULTS: A total of 111 children (26.1%) were reported to have one or more respiratory illnesses (allergic rhinitis, asthma, bronchitis, sinusitis, and pneumonia). Of these, 21 (18.9%), 41 (36.9%), and 49 (44.1%) children were from households that cooked once, twice, and three times a day with gas. Hierarchical logistic regression models adjusting for socioeconomic, demographic, and indoor risk factors including passive smoking showed that household gas cooking was positively associated with respiratory illnesses. There was a dose-response relation between the frequency of gas cooking and the prevalence of respiratory illnesses in the estate with lower outdoor air pollution (OR = 6.1 and 3.2 respectively, for cooking three and two meals a day, compared to one meal a day). This relation was not observed in the more polluted estate. The association between the presence of a cigarette smoker in the household and the prevalence of respiratory illnesses was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: As gas cooking is common in urban households, the findings could have important public health implications.

Air Pollution, Indoor↗

PubMed1995

Mortality of butchers and cooks identified from the 1961 census of England and Wales.

OBJECTIVES: To explore a suspected hazard of lung cancer in butchers and cooks. METHODS: 4018 male butchers and 2062 male cooks were identified from the 1961 census of England and Wales. 4857 (79.9%) of these men were traced through the National Health Service Central Register, and 3518 deaths were recorded during follow up to the end of 1992. Mortality from lung cancer and other causes was compared with that of the general population by the person-years method. RESULTS: Mortality from all causes was significantly below that of the national population in both butchers (standardized mortality ratio (SMR) 0.94, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.90-0.98) and cooks (SMR 0.89, 95% CI 0.84-0.95). When allowance was made for a latency of 20 years from entry to follow up, the deficit in butchers was reduced, but that in cooks persisted, and was largely explained by a shortfall of deaths from cancer and circulatory disease. Mortality from lung cancer was close to expectation in the butchers (SMR 1.01, 95% CI 0.90-1.13) and below expectation in the cooks (SMR 0.93, 95% CI 0.75-1.13). Cooks had increased mortality from cancers of the oral cavity (SMR 5.57) and pharynx (SMR 2.66). CONCLUSIONS: The findings provide no support for an occupational hazard of lung cancer in either butchers or cooks. The possibility of excess risk in sub-groups of these occupations cannot be discounted. The high rates of oral and pharyngeal cancer in cooks are probably a consequence of high alcohol consumption.

Cause of Death↗

PubMed1984

[Studies on health hazards among cooks providing school lunch service. Report 2. An analysis of factors associated with the development of health hazards].

The previous report revealed that the musculoskeletal symptoms of cooks are related to their working conditions, but the cause and effect relationship was not clarified. In the present report, the relationship between some causative factors and the health hazards is analyzed epidemiologically. The subjects were chosen from the cooks mentioned in the previous report. The results are as follows: A clear relationship was not observed between age and health hazards. A dose-response relationship was observed between the cumulative duration of cooking work and the subjective symptoms. An antecedent-consequent relationship was also shown between the cooking work and the health hazards. Another dose-response relationship was observed between the amount of cooking work and the subjective symptoms. The frequency of "carrying heavy objects" assigned as a cause of development of the hazards, especially of low-back pain, increased in accordance with the number of meals served in each kitchen. It was observed that the improvement of cooking equipment enabled the incidence of symptoms to decline, but the elevation of working speed due to mechanization could still be hazardous. As a result of the physical examination, a similarity was observed between the cooking work and the clinical findings in comparison with ticket-vending machine operators. It is concluded that these results demonstrate a cause and effect relationship between cooking work and the development of health hazards.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

[The effect of lime cooking of corn on phytic acid, calcium, total and ionizable iron content].

The present study was carried out with the objective to learn about the effect of the nixtamalization process of corn on the content of phytic acid and availability of iron in the lime-cooked corn. For the study, lots of corn with 0, 0.4, 0.8 and 1.20% of lime on the basis of corn weight, in water in the ratio of 3 to 1, and cooking times at each level of lime of 55, 65 and 75 minutes, were processed. Half of the treatments were not soaked after cooking, while the other half were soaked in the cooking solution for a 12-hour period. Statistical analysis of the data and correlations calculated showed that the phytic acid content decreased significantly during the nixtamalization process, affected by the cooking time and the level of lime used, reaching levels of reduction of around 35%. Both the ionizable iron and calcium level increased up to 52-77% and 400-478% respectively. The amount of calcium present in the cooked corn as the result of the lime cooking process, is significantly higher in comparison with the phytic acid content, which may be easily saturated and thus, unavailable to bind iron. An inverse relationship was found between phytic acid and bioavailable iron and its absorption percentage. On the other hand, soaking time did not significantly affected the phytic acid and available iron, although it contributed to a slightly higher Ca accumulation. The amount of ionizable iron was higher at higher levels of lime, which suggested that the nixtamalization process would favor the biological utilization of iron in lime-cooked corn and provide calcium to the diet.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1996

Lipid oxidation in chicken as affected by cooking and frozen storage.

Oxidative rancidity in fresh, frozen and cooked chicken breast and leg meat was evaluated by measuring malondialdehyde (MDA) in fat from meat with an improved 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) assay with antioxidant protection, and by measuring the relative fluorescent products of organic and aqueous layers from FOLCH extracted meat. Fresh samples were frozen for 3 and 6 months at -18 degrees C and cooked in convection and microwave ovens. Frozen storage for 3 and 6 months either before cooking or after convection and microwave cooking substantially increased MDA concentrations in fat from meat, whereas cooking was more effective in generating fluorescent products. There were no significant differences in free MDA concentrations or TBA numbers in chicken meat between convection and microwave cooking methods. The certain secondary fluorescent products were significantly higher in meat cooked by convection oven. The initial levels of either MDA or fluorescent products in meat are of primary importance in determining the final MDA and fluorescence levels after processing.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Effect of cooking procedures and storage on starch bioavailability in common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).

Common commercial beans were cooked using two procedures: under pressure (autoclaving) and traditional cooking. Total starch extraction was higher in beans cooked with the traditional procedure (41.69-42.81%) than in the autoclaved samples (37.04-38.16%) and did not change during storage at 4 degrees C. However, available and total resistant starch levels in vitro were not influenced by the cooking procedure or storage. Retrograded resistant starch content was higher in beans cooked with the traditional process (2.65-2.79%) than in autoclaved beans (1.62-1.94%). The initial in vitro alpha-amylolysis rate in freshly cooked beans was higher in the autoclaved preparation than in the beans cooked by the traditional process, but final hydrolysis indices (90 min) were similar for both samples. None of the bean samples showed statistical differences in alpha-amylolysis behavior (alpha = 0.05) after storage at 4 degrees C for 96 hour.

Biological Availability↗

PubMed1990

Mutagenicity of basic fractions derived from lamb and beef cooked by common household methods.

Mutagen production was examined in lamb and beef in relation to certain common household cooking methods. Mutagenicity was assessed, after extraction of the basic fraction of cooked meat samples, using Salmonella typhimurium strain TA1538 with added rat-liver S-9 homogenate. Little or no mutagenicity was found in barbecued lamb chops, in microwave-cooked lamb chops, sirloin steak, leg of lamb, or rolled beef loaf, in roasted leg of lamb or rolled beef loaf, in stewed blade steak or in boiled chuck steak. However, the basic fraction from well-done, edible fried or grilled meat contained mutagenic activity equivalent to approximately 30,000 TA1538 revertants/100 g cooked meat. It was found tht the mutagenic activity of grilled lamb chops, sirloin and rump steaks was directly related to the average surface temperatures attained during cooking. Use of butter as a frying medium was particularly associated with higher mutagenicity in meat samples. Fried meats (rump and fillet steaks) generally yielded higher mutagenic activity than did grilled meats (rump steak, lamb chops) at comparable temperatures of the cooking medium. Using similar cooking procedures, lamb did not differ markedly from beef in mutagenic activity.

Animals↗