SEARCH · PubMed Health

Results for “Disparities”

Explore indexed PubMed citations for clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health research. Read source abstracts and follow each citation to its original PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 145 records · Page 8Linked to original sources

PubMed2005

Neuronal sensitivity to microsecond time disparities in the electrosensory system of Gymnarchus niloticus.

To perform the jamming avoidance response (JAR), the weakly electric fish Gymnarchus detects time disparities on the order of microseconds between electrosensory signals received by electroreceptors in different parts of the body surface. This paper describes time-disparity thresholds of output neurons of the electrosensory lateral line lobe (ELL), where the representation of timing information is converted from a time code to a firing-rate code. We recorded extracellular single-unit responses from pyramidal cells in the ELL to sinusoidally modulated time disparity with various depths (0-200 micros). Threshold sensitivity to time disparities measured in 123 units ranged from 0.5 to 100 micros and was < or =5 micros in 60% of the units. The units from pyramidal cells in the inner and outer cell layers of the ELL responded equally well to small time disparities. The neuronal thresholds to time disparities found in the ELL are comparable with those demonstrated in behavioral performance of the JAR. The sensitivity of ELL units to small time disparities was unaffected when the center of the cyclic time-disparity modulation was shifted over a wide range (up to 250 micros), indicating an adaptation mechanism for steady-state time disparities that preserves the sensitivity to small dynamic changes in time disparities. Phase-locked input neurons, which provide time information to the ELL by phase-locked firing of action potentials, did not adapt to steady-state time shifts of sensory signals. This suggests that the adaptation emerges within the ELL.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed2005

Geographic variation in health care and the problem of measuring racial disparities.

In its study of racial and ethnic disparities in health care, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) concluded that there were large and significant disparities in the quality and quantity of health care received by minority groups in the United States. This article shows that where a patient lives can itself have a large impact on the level and quality of health care the patient receives. Since black or Hispanic populations tend to live in different areas from non-Hispanic white populations, location matters in the measurement and interpretation of health (and health care) disparities. There is wide variation in racial disparities across geographic lines: some areas have substantial disparities, while others have equal treatment. Furthermore, there is no consistent pattern of disparities: some areas may have a wide disparity in one treatment but no disparity in another. The problem of differences in quality of care across regions, as opposed to racial disparities in care, should remain the target of policy makers, as reducing quality disparities would play a major role in improving the health care received by all Americans and by minority Americans in particular.

Bias↗

PubMed2005

Three tests for measuring unjustified disparate impacts in organ transplantation: the problem of "included variable" bias.

Civil rights statutes often prohibit two distinct types of discrimination, referred to as "disparate treatment" and "disparate impact." Disparate treatment is race-contingent decision making. But even decision making that is not affected by people's race may still produce an unjustified disparate impact. For example, a race-neutral transplantation preference for allografts with partial antigen matches might produce an unjustified disparate impact on African Americans with end-stage renal disease. The transplantation preference might make it harder for African Americans to receive a transplant without significantly increasing the chance of transplant survival. Because disparate impact and disparate treatment claims have distinct elements, they require distinct methods of statistical testing. This article analyzes three different ways of testing unjustified disparate impacts in organ transplantation, which I will call the traditional test, the omitted variable test, and the outcome test. Each of these methods of testing for disparate impact are attuned to the problem of "included variable" bias. Controlling statistically for nonracial variables may actually bias the analysis and mask the existence of unjustified disparate impacts.

Bias↗

PubMed1998

Center-surround antagonism based on disparity in primate area MT.

Most neurons in primate visual area MT have a large, modulatory region surrounding their classically defined receptive field, or center. The velocity tuning of this "surround" is generally antagonistic to the center, making it potentially useful for detecting image discontinuities on the basis of differential motion. Because classical MT receptive fields are also disparity-selective, one might expect to find disparity-based surround antagonism as well; this would provide additional information about image discontinuities. However, the effects of disparity in the MT surround have not been studied previously. We measured single-neuron responses to variable-disparity moving patterns in the MT surround while holding a central moving pattern at a fixed disparity. Of the 130 neurons tested, 84% exhibited a modulatory surround, and in 52% of these, responses were significantly affected by disparity in the surround. In most cases, disparity effects in the surround were antagonistic to the center; that is, neurons were generally suppressed when center and surround stimuli had the same disparity, with decreasing suppression as the center and surround stimuli became separated in depth. Also, the effects of disparity and direction were mainly additive; i.e., disparity effects were generally independent of direction, and vice versa. These results suggest that the MT center-surround apparatus provides information about image discontinuities, not only on the basis of velocity differences but on the basis of depth differences as well. This supports the hypothesis that MT surrounds have a role in image segmentation.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1995

Stereopsis, vertical disparity and relief transformations.

The pattern of retinal binocular disparities acquired by a fixating visual system depends on both the depth structure of the scene and the viewing geometry. This paper treats the problem of interpreting the disparity pattern in terms of scene structure without relying on estimates of fixation position from eye movement control and proprioception mechanisms. We propose a sequential decomposition of this interpretation process into disparity correction, which is used to compute three-dimensional structure up to a relief transformation, and disparity normalization, which is used to resolve the relief ambiguity to obtain metric structure. We point out that the disparity normalization stage can often be omitted, since relief transformations preserve important properties such as depth ordering and coplanarity. Based on this framework we analyse three previously proposed computational models of disparity processing; the Mayhew and Longuet-Higgins model, the deformation model and the polar angle disparity model. We show how these models are related, and argue that none of them can account satisfactorily for available psychophysical data. We therefore propose an alternative model, regional disparity correction. Using this model we derive predictions for a number of experiments based on vertical disparity manipulations, and compare them to available experimental data. The paper is concluded with a summary and a discussion of the possible architectures and mechanisms underling stereopsis in the human visual system.

Convergence, Ocular↗

PubMed1994

A polar coordinate system for describing binocular disparity.

When a meridional magnifier is introduced in front of one eye, a planar surface is perceived as slanted about a vertical axis. If the horizontal meridian is magnified, the perceived slant is away from the eye with the magnifier (geometric effect). If the vertical meridian is magnified, the slant is towards the eye with the magnifier (induced effect). While the geometric effect can be explained by the binocular horizontal disparities introduced by the horizontal magnifier, the induced effect has to be explained differently. Various models have been developed and the induced effect has generally been explained as a reinterpretation of horizontal disparity under a new reference of stereoscopic localization which is resultant from the vertical positional disparity introduced by the vertical magnifier. In this paper we describe binocular disparity in a polar coordinate system. Under this system, horizontal and vertical disparities are combined into a single stimulus variable, polar angle disparity. We show that the spatial distribution of polar angle disparity can faithfully describe the three-dimensional slant and inclination of a planar surface relative to the gaze normal plane. Both geometric and induced effects can be explained as direct responses to the polar angle disparity map distorted by the magnifier. Theoretical predictions based on the polar angle disparity are compared with experimental findings.

Depth Perception↗

PubMed2005

Vertical-disparity gradients are processed independently in different depth planes.

We examined the effects of vertical-disparity gradients on apparent depth curvature of textured surfaces. In Experiment 1, vertical disparities induced expected curvatures when the surface had a horizontal disparity of < +/-40.34'. A central row of elements, lacking vertical disparities, ceased to have the same apparent curvature as the surface when the horizontal disparity between row and surface exceeded +/-5'. In Experiment 2, vertical disparities were not pooled between superimposed surfaces separated by horizontal disparities > +/-10'. Thus, vertical-disparity gradients are not pooled over depth for curvature perception. Our results suggest that vertical disparities are used to determine distances to surfaces directly, rather than to estimate vergence.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

[Fixation disparity with the Pola pointing test: not representative for eye position under natural viewing conditions].

BACKGROUND: According to certain findings obtained with the Zeiss Polatest, H.J. Haase defined a "Fixation Disparity Type One". In this diagnosis, the "Zeigertest" is particularly important. The Zeigertest consists of a central ring presented to both eyes for fixation, a vertical clock hand presented to the right eye and two markings at the six and twelve o'clock positions presented to the left eye. All parts are surrounded by a binocularly visible frame. Subjects with a "Fixation Disparity Type One" see a misalignment between the clock hand and the peripheral markings. We investigated (1) whether the perceived misalignment correlated with an objective deviation of the eyes from orthovergence and (2) whether subjects with a "Fixation Disparity Type One" had a deviation of the eyes from orthovergence when looking at a natural, i.e., fully fusionable object. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Out of 303 medical students, 10 subjects with a "Fixation Disparity Type One" were selected and asked to indicate the perceived alignment or misalignment in the Zeigertest with a laser pointer. Two subjects without fixation disparity served as controls. The position of both eyes was recorded using the search coil technique. One of the 10 subjects with "Fixation Disparity Type One" had to be excluded due to excessive blinking. Experiment 1: In the beginning all parts of the Zeigertest were presented to both eyes (natural viewing condition). Then, the object for one of the eyes was switched off leaving the frame as the only fusional stimulus. The outcome variable was a refixation movement of the other eye. This experiment is similar to the unilateral cover test. Experiment 2: In the beginning all parts of the Zeigertest were presented to both eyes (natural viewing condition). Then, the original Zeigertest was switched on (clock hand presented only to the right eye, peripheral markings only to the left eye). The outcome variable was a change of vergence. RESULTS: Experiment 1: A significant refixation movement did not occur in any of the subjects. Experiment 2. In all 9 subjects with "Fixation Disparity Type One" the vergence changed significantly between 2.4 and 14.9 arcmin. The change of vergence correlated significantly with the angle of the perceived misalignment between clock hand and peripheral markings. CONCLUSION: A fixation disparity ascertained at the Zeigertest does not indicate a fixation disparity under natural viewing conditions.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Pooling of vertical disparities by the human visual system.

Two experiments are described in which the effects of scaling vertical disparities on the perceived amplitudes of dome-shaped surfaces depicted with horizontal disparities were examined. The Mayhew and Longuet-Higgins's theory and the regional-disparity-correction theory of Garding et al predict that scaling should generate a change in perceived depth appropriate to the viewing distance simulated by the scaled vertical disparities. Significant depth changes were observed, by means of a nulling task in which the vertical-disparity-scaling effect was cancelled by the observer choosing a pattern of horizontal disparities that made the dome-shaped surface appear flat. The sizes of the scaling effects were less than those predicted by either theory, suggesting that other cues to fixation distance such as oculomotor information played an appreciable role. In conditions in which 50% of the texture elements were given one value of vertical-disparity scaling and the remaining 50% were left unscaled, the size of the scaling effect on perceived depth could be accounted for by equally weighted pooling of the vertical-disparity information unless the two scalings were very dissimilar, in which case the lower scaling factor tended to dominate. These findings are discussed in terms of a Hough parameter estimation model of the vertical-disparity-pooling process.

Attention↗

PubMed2006

The Mallett Fixation Disparity Test: influence of test instructions and relationship with symptoms.

Fixation disparity is a minute ocular misalignment under conditions of binocular single vision and is typically detected in primary eye care practices in the UK using the Mallett Unit Fixation Disparity Test. This instrument creates natural viewing conditions, when the patient's binocular system is fused using both central and peripheral fusion locks. This allows the examiner to determine the minimum prism power that eliminates the fixation disparity: the associated phoria or aligning prism. The spherical power that eliminates the fixation disparity, the aligning sphere, can also be determined. The near Mallett Unit Fixation Disparity Test has been shown to have good sensitivity and specificity for detecting symptomatic heterophoria. Cases of decompensated heterophoria tend to have a fixation disparity and the aligning prism or aligning sphere is a good indicator of the correction that will render the heterophoria compensated. The purpose of this study was, for the first time, to investigate the effect of test instructions on the results of the Mallett Unit Fixation Disparity Test. In study 1, we surveyed and observed practitioners to determine the instructions that are typically used. In study 2, we compared results obtained with this "standard" method of questioning with a more "specific" form of questioning that has been suggested in the literature. The participants for study 2 were 105 patients aged 7-70 years who were randomly selected from those attending a community optometric practice. Significantly different results were obtained with the two sets of instructions. The specific form of questioning revealed more cases of fixation disparity and the results with this method showed a better correlation with symptoms. This only held for near vision: for distance vision, symptoms were not significantly correlated with the presence of fixation disparity. This agrees with previous work with the Mallett unit, which showed a significant relationship with symptoms only at near. We also found that patients with more severe symptoms had greater degrees of aligning prism. Our study supports previous work indicating that the Mallett unit is a useful tool for detecting symptomatic heterophoria at near. However, we found that the testing method is important: patients need to be asked not just whether the nonius strips are aligned but also whether one or both of the strips ever moves. More research is needed to investigate the significance of precise test instructions in other optometric and orthoptic tests.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Integration of perspective and disparity cues in surface-orientation-selective neurons of area CIP.

We investigated the effects of linear perspective and binocular disparity, as monocular and binocular depth cues, respectively, on the response of surface-orientation-selective (SOS) neurons in the caudal part of the lateral bank of the intraparietal sulcus (area CIP). During the single-unit recording, monkeys were required to perform the delayed-matching-to-sample (successive same/different discrimination) of discriminating surface orientation in stereoscopic computer graphics. Of 211 visually responsive neurons, 66 were intensively tested using the solid-figure stereogram (SFS) of a square plate with both disparity and perspective cues (D+P condition), and 62 of these were identified as SOS neurons for responding selectively to the orientation of stimuli. All these neurons were further tested using a solid figure with perspective cues alone (P-only condition), and 58% (36/62) of these showed selective response to the orientation of the stimuli. Of the 62 SOS neurons, 35 neurons were also tested using SFS with disparity cues alone (D-only condition) in addition to the D+P and P-only conditions. We classified these 35 neurons into four groups by comparing the response selectivity under the P-only and D-only conditions. More than one-half of these (19/35) were sensitive to both perspective and disparity cues (DP neurons), and nearly one-third (11/35) of these were sensitive to disparity cues alone (D neurons), but a few (2/35) were sensitive to perspective cues alone (P neurons). The remaining (3/35) neurons exhibited orientation selectivity only when both cues were present. In DP neurons, the preferred orientation under the D+P condition was correlated to those under the D-only and P-only conditions, and the response magnitude under the D+P condition was greater than those under the D-only and P-only conditions, suggesting the integration of both cues for the perception of surface orientation. However, in these neurons, the orientation tuning sharpness under the D+P and D-only conditions was higher than that under the P-only condition, suggesting the dominance of disparity cues. After the single-unit recording experiments, muscimol was microinjected into the recording site to temporarily inactivate its function. In all three effective cases out of six microinjection experiments, discrimination of a three-dimensional (3D) surface orientation was impaired when disparity cues alone were present. In only one effective case, when a relatively large amount of muscimol was microinjected, discrimination of a 3D surface orientation was impaired even when both disparity and perspective cues were present. These results suggest that linear perspective is an important cue for representations of a 3D surface of SOS neurons in area CIP, although it is less effective than binocular disparity, and that both of these depth cues may be integrated in area CIP for the perception of surface orientation in depth.

Algorithms↗

PubMed2004

Understanding the cortical specialization for horizontal disparity.

Because the eyes are displaced horizontally, binocular vision is inherently anisotropic. Recent experimental work has uncovered evidence of this anisotropy in primary visual cortex (V1): neurons respond over a wider range of horizontal than vertical disparity, regardless of their orientation tuning. This probably reflects the horizontally elongated distribution of two-dimensional disparity experienced by the visual system, but it conflicts with all existing models of disparity selectivity, in which the relative response range to vertical and horizontal disparities is determined by the preferred orientation. Potentially, this discrepancy could require us to abandon the widely held view that processing in V1 neurons is initially linear. Here, we show that these new experimental data can be reconciled with an initial linear stage; we present two physiologically plausible ways of extending existing models to achieve this. First, we allow neurons to receive input from multiple binocular subunits with different position disparities (previous models have assumed all subunits have identical position and phase disparity). Then we incorporate a form of divisive normalization, which has successfully explained many response properties of V1 neurons but has not previously been incorporated into a model of disparity selectivity. We show that either of these mechanisms decouples disparity tuning from orientation tuning and discuss how the models could be tested experimentally. This represents the first explanation of how the cortical specialization for horizontal disparity may be achieved.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Variation in stereoacuity: normative description, fixation disparity, and the roles of aging and gender.

PURPOSE: Variation in stereoacuity was examined in a large group of observers with Snellen acuity of 20/30 or less. METHODS: Threshold retinal disparity for 2.78 degrees x 2.28 degrees rectangular test stimuli was determined as a function of the retinal disparity (varied from 55 arcmin uncrossed to 55 arcmin crossed) of a 5.57 degrees x 4.8 degrees rectangular pedestal stimulus in 160 observers 15 to 79 years of age. In most cases, data were collected during viewing of random dot stereograms (RDSs) presented for 100-ms, which prevents involvement of vergence or monocular depth cues. RESULTS: When plotted logarithmically, 100-ms thresholds in 106 observers less than 60 years of age approximated a normal distribution (mean, 1.57 +/- 0.227 [SD] log arcsec [37 linear arcsec]). Among these, one observer was supernormal, 88% were within the normal range (+/-2 SD of the log mean), 2% had elevated thresholds, and 8% failed testing with 100-ms stimuli but had residual binocular depth discrimination; 1 observer was stereoblind. In contrast, only 37% of the observers aged 60 to 69 and 25% of the observers aged 70 to 79 had stereoacuity within the normal range. Moreover, the extent of the stereo deficiencies became more pronounced with age. Fixation disparity was operationally defined as optimal stereoscopic threshold with a nonzero retinal disparity pedestal. Of the 151 normal observers tested, 89% were maximally sensitive to disparities within 11 arcmin of fixation: all males were maximally sensitive to pedestals within 22 arcmin of fixation, whereas 8% of females had fixation disparities of more than 22 arcmin. Males were more likely to be sensitive with uncrossed-disparity pedestals, whereas females were more likely to be sensitive with crossed disparity. CONCLUSIONS: Age-related deterioration in stereoacuity is reflected not only by a linear correlation between age and threshold but also by a catastrophic factor that produces more marked deterioration after age 60. Both factors are probably cerebral and not specifically related to stereopsis. The prevalence of fixation disparity in the normal population is probably more common than previously reported.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Modeling V1 neuronal responses to orientation disparity.

The contribution of interocular orientation differences to depth perception, at either the neuronal or the psychophysical level, is unclear. To understand the responses of binocular neurons to orientation disparity, we extended the energy model of Ohzawa et al. (1990) to incorporate binocular differences in receptive-field orientation. The responses of the model to grating stimuli with interocular orientation differences were examined, along with the responses to random dot stereograms (RDS) depicting slanted surfaces. The responses to combinations of stimulus orientations in the two eyes were left-right separable, which means there was no consistent response to the binocular orientation difference. All existing neuronal data concerning orientation disparity can be well described by this type of model (even a version with no disparity selectivity). The disparity sensitive model is nonetheless sensitive to changes in RDS slant, although it requires narrow orientation bandwidth to produce substantial modulation. The disparity-insensitive model shows no selectivity to slant in this stimulus. Several modifications to the model were attempted to improve its selectivity for orientation disparity and/or slant. A model built by summing several disparity-sensitive models showed left-right inseparable responses, responding maximally to a consistent orientation difference. Despite this property, the selectivity for slant in RDS stimuli was no better than the simple disparity-selective model. The range of models evaluated here demonstrate that interocular orientation differences are neither necessary nor sufficient for signaling slant. In contrast, within the framework of the energy model, positional disparity sensitivity appears to be both necessary and sufficient.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Fixation disparity and accommodation as a function of viewing distance and prism load.

Fixation disparity was measured with dichoptically presented nonius lines at viewing distances of 20, 30, 40, 60, and 100 cm, so that both vergence and accommodation were stimulated adequately as in normal vision. As the viewing distance was shortened, mean fixation disparity changed monotonically from 1 min arc eso (i.e., the eyes converged in front of the target) to 3 min arc exo. The average standard deviation of the psychometric function of fixation disparity, which is a measure of the temporal variability of vergence, was smallest at 100 cm (when fixation disparity was eso) and increased as viewing distance decreased. Fixation disparity itself and the change of fixation disparity with distance differed reliably among subjects with normal binocular vision, but neither was related to the momentary degree of accommodation. Fixation disparity was also measured at a constant distance of 40 cm, but with prisms in front of the eyes that induced the same vergence angles as viewing distances between 20 and 100 cm. The slope of these conventional fixation disparity curves as a function of prism load was generally larger than the slope of fixation disparity as a function of viewing distance (which can be explained by accommodative vergence), but the slopes of the two types of curves were correlated (r = 0.39, P = 0.02, n = 25).

Accommodation, Ocular↗

PubMed1998

Effects of cue context on the perception of depth from combined disparity and perspective cues.

PURPOSE: In normal vision, stereoscopic cues are combined with perspective cues to provide veridical depth perception. The relative strengths of these depth cues, however, may be dependent upon context effects. We investigated the role of stimulus context on the interactions of binocular disparity, contrast, and size. METHODS: The subjects, four observers with normal stereoacuity and one stereo-amblyope, discriminated far vs. near perceived depth of Gabor patches; feedback was based on the sign of binocular disparity. Depth discrimination functions were measured under conditions in which depth cues were consonant or in conflict. Three stimulus contexts were used: (1) variable disparity with fixed spatial frequency and contrast; (2) variable contrast with fixed spatial frequency and disparity; and (3) variable spatial frequency with fixed contrast and disparity. The effects of stimulus context were derived from comparisons of discrimination rates for identical stimuli across the three sets of conditions. RESULTS: In subjects with normal stereopsis, for disparities less than 2 arcmin, depth perception was dominated by contrast in contrast-varying sessions, or by size in spatial frequency-varying sessions. With larger disparities, depth perception became dependent on disparity, regardless of the contrast or spatial frequency of the test stimulus. The results for the stereo-amblyope showed much greater dependence on perspective cues and, in most cases, the transition from perspective- to disparity-based depth perception did not occur. CONCLUSIONS: These investigations demonstrate strong stimulus context effects and have important implications for the combination rules of stereoscopic and perspective cues in depth perception of normal and stereo-deficient subjects.

Contrast Sensitivity↗

PubMed1992

Binocular interaction and disparity coding at the 17-18 border: contribution of the corpus callosum.

Binocular disparity, resulting from the projection of a three-dimensional object on the two spatially separated retinae, constitutes one of the fundamental cues for stereoscopic perception. The binocularity of cells in one hemisphere stems from two sources: i) from the ipsilateral ganglion cells in the temporal retina which converge with inputs coming from the contralateral nasal retina; the latter axons cross at the chiasma; ii) from inputs originating in the opposite hemisphere which cross in the corpus callosum. The objective of this study was to demonstrate that interactions from both types of inputs can result in the formation of disparity sensitive neurons and presumably that either type could mediate stereoperception based on disparity cues. Two types of disparity sensitive neurons were found in the normal cat: one type, showing maximal interactive effects around zero disparity responded with strong excitation or inhibition when the stimuli were in register. These neurons are presumed to signal stimuli situated about the fixation plane. The other type, also made up of two subtypes of opposed valencies, gave maximum responses at one set of disparities and inhibitory responses to the other set. These were presumed to signal stimuli situated in front of or behind the fixation plane. In the split-chiasm cat, whose cortical binocularity is presumably assured by converging ipsilateral and callosal inputs, three of the four subtypes of disparity sensitive neurons were found, the uncrossed disparity cells being absent in these animals. Moreover, stimulating each eye individually indicated that nearly 80% of the cells in normal and about 40% in split-chiasm cats were binocularly driven. However, both these figures underestimated the amount of binocular interaction in the callosal recipient zone, since stimulating both eyes simultaneously showed that a proportionately larger number of cells were binocularly driven. Disparity sensitive cells also varied as a function of ocular dominance, i.e., cells signaling the fixation plane tended to have balanced dominance whereas units preferring stimuli situated in front of or behind the fixation plane were dominated by the ipsilateral and contralateral eyes, respectively.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Disparities across the breast cancer continuum.

OBJECTIVE: We performed a structured review of the literature to identify areas of greater and lesser knowledge of the nature of disparities across the breast cancer continuum from risk and prevention to treatment and mortality. METHODS: We searched OvidMedline and PubMed to identify published studies from January 1990 to March 2004 that address disparities in breast cancer. We read the abstracts of the identified articles and then reviewed the articles if they were in English, were limited to American populations, limited to women, and described quantitative outcomes. We designated the articles as addressing one or more disparities across one or more of the domains of the breast cancer continuum. RESULTS: Substantial research exists on racial disparities in breast cancer screening, diagnosis, treatment, and survival. Disparities in screening and treatment exist across other domains of disparities including age, insurance status, and socioeconomic position. Several gaps were identified including how factors interact. CONCLUSION: A structured review of breast cancer disparities suggests that research in other domains of social inequality and levels of the cancer continuum may uncover further disparities. A multidisciplinary and multi-pronged approach is needed to translate the knowledge from existing research into interventions to reduce or eliminate disparities.

Adult↗