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PubMed2004

Antimicrobial resistance among gram-negative foodborne bacterial pathogens associated with foods of animal origin.

Antimicrobial-resistant foodborne pathogens are acquired primarily through consumption of contaminated food of animal origin or water. While there is much disagreement on the health burden imposed by resistance in foodborne bacterial pathogens, it is generally agreed that the use of antimicrobials, whether for growth promotion, prevention, or treatment, can select for resistant bacterial pathogens, and that these pathogens can be transmitted on food originating from sites processing treated animals. Information on the evolution and dissemination of antimicrobial resistance in foodborne pathogens shows that the situation is complex and differs by organism and antimicrobial. A clearer understanding of the ecology of resistance is needed in order to support science-based assessments of the public health risks due to the use of antimicrobials in the animal husbandry environment.

Animal Husbandry↗

PubMed2004

Detection of Campylobacter or Salmonella in turkey semen and the ability of poultry semen extenders to reduce their concentrations.

Campylobacter and Salmonella are the most commonly reported pathogens causing foodborne illness in the United States. In turkeys, the potential that semen used for artificial insemination is contaminated with these foodborne pathogens has not been investigated. Because semen on turkey farms is pooled and then used to inseminate multiple hens, contaminated semen could easily spread these bacteria throughout entire flocks via artificial insemination. The objectives of this study were to 1) determine if semen from commercial turkey farms contained these foodborne pathogens and 2) if present, evaluate the efficacy of semen extenders to reduce or eliminate Campylobacter and Salmonella from semen. Semen was collected from randomized pools of ejaculates from 10 to 30 toms per farm from 6 flocks over a 7-wk period and, on occasion, was found to contain Campylobacter, Salmonella, or both. To evaluate the efficacy of semen extenders to reduce or eliminate pathogens, pooled ejaculates were challenged with Campylobacter or Salmonella and treated with commercial poultry extenders containing various concentrations of antibiotics or an antibiotic combination previously demonstrated to remove Campylobacter from mammalian semen. Results demonstrate that commercial turkey semen may contain Campylobacter or Salmonella, and the semen extenders tested either did not reduce the bacteria or reduced but did not eliminate these bacteria from semen. We concluded that semen may be a potential vehicle for Campylobacter transfer to hens, and, if this is true, development of a method for eliminating pathogens in semen before insemination could reduce the risk of colonization.

Animals↗

PubMed2026

Molecular surveillance of foodborne bacterial pathogens and resistome in food products from Hong Kong.

Foodborne infections pose an increasing public health challenge worldwide. The problem has been aggravated by the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance genes among zoonotic pathogens, which results in a sharp increase in antibiotic resistance rate recorded among the major foodborne pathogens. To obtain an overview of the extent to which food products purchased in the markets in Hong Kong were contaminated by foodborne pathogens, we collected 95 raw meat samples from wet markets and isolated 236 bacterial strains of various species, with Escherichia coli being the most dominant species (131 strains). Contamination of food products by multiple foodborne pathogens was commonly observed. These include both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria that exhibit various levels of resistance, with some possessing multiple clinically important antibiotic resistance genes. Seventeen bacterial strains of various species isolated from three food samples were comprehensively analysed by the Oxford Nanopore R10.4 technology. Novel conjugative plasmids carrying antimicrobial resistance gene-bearing mobile genetic elements were commonly detectable in the test strains. Some of the plasmids were shown to have originated from other environmental sources or other bacterial species, indicating that raw foods in the local market may serve as a reservoir of resistance-encoding genetic elements from which such elements are disseminated to various microbial pathogens. These findings suggest a need to perform periodic but comprehensive surveillance of multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens and the major antimicrobial resistance genes in common food products, so as to disrupt the transmission routes of such organisms and the resistance-encoding genetic elements that they harbour.

Hong Kong↗

PubMed2001

Considering uncertainty in comparing the burden of illness due to foodborne microbial pathogens.

The uncertainty attendant to burden-of-illness estimates should be taken into account in comparing the public health impact of different foodborne pathogens. In this paper, decision analysis concepts are applied to the comparisons of pathogen-specific burden-of-illness estimates. In situations wherein the magnitude of uncertainty varies, the rank order of pathogen-specific burden-of-illness estimates is sensitive to the decisional criteria applied. To illustrate the magnitude of attendant uncertainty in pathogen-specific foodborne-illness estimates, probabilistic risk assessment methods are used to characterize the uncertainty regarding the burden of illness due to Escherichia coli O157:H7. The magnitude of uncertainty about the burden of food-related illness due to E. coli O157:H7 is substantial, ranging from less than 50,000 to more than 120,000 cases/year. This example underscores the importance of considering the uncertainty attendant to burden-of-illness estimates in comparing the public health impacts of different pathogens. Although some would argue that the expected value of the number of illnesses provides the "best estimate" for decision-making, this merely reflects a decision-making rule of convention and not a scientific truism.

Decision Trees↗

PubMed2001

Emerging food-borne pathogens.

The epidemiology of foodborne diseases is changing. While in many developing nations the efficient treatment of diarrhoeal diseases through oral rehydration has probably led to the prevention of many food related deaths, the underlying problems have not been solved. In these countries, the disease incidence of food-and waterborne disease is still increasing, and now data from other parts of the world indicate that new foodborne pathogens have emerged as important public health problems. Over the last two decades, bacterial infections caused by Campylobacter and enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli have emerged, well-recognized pathogens, such as Salmonella eoteritidis, have increased dramatically in disease incidence and important foodborne pathogens have become increasingly resistant to antimicrobial agents. The future strategy for prevention of foodborne disease should be founded in scientifically based evaluations of the whole food production chain 'from farm to table', including a description of the most important (risk) factors. Epidemiological studies of outbreaks as well as sporadic cases should be aimed at a better understanding of these factors. In terms of public health importance of the problem, the focus should be on the size of the problem, and the potential for improvement. The indications are that both in developed and developing countries there is significant potential for an improvement of the situation. With this aim in mind, international effort should focus on scientific assessments of the potential for risk reduction under different regional conditions.

Campylobacter↗

PubMed2005

The Enter-net and Salm-gene databases of foodborne bacterial pathogens that cause human infections in Europe and beyond: an international collaboration in surveillance and the development of intervention strategies.

The free movement of people and foodstuffs between countries are effective ways of distributing disease internationally. There is a requirement for a mechanism whereby data and information on potential outbreaks of foodborne pathogens can be disseminated rapidly to those who need to know. The Enter-net dedicated surveillance network provides this mechanism, complemented by the Salm-gene molecular typing network. Data on epidemiological and microbiological features on current cases, as well as background levels of infections are immediately available within the Enter-net databases. The Salm-gene network with its database of harmonized salmonella PFGE patterns from the participating European countries provides immediate, and electronically exchangeable, DNA fingerprints of outbreak strains. This prompt electronic dissemination of information regarding unusual events with international implications ensures that public health interventions can be implemented and cases of foodborne disease prevented.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Antibacterial activity of plants used in cooking for aroma and taste.

Thirty-three plants used in cooking for aroma and taste were examined for antibacterial activity against pathogens causing foodborne infections. Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Staphylococcus aureus were sensitive to many kinds of plant extracts, whereas Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Salmonella Enteritidis populations decreased in only six, one, and three plant extracts, respectively. The polyphenol content in the plants was significantly different between the antibacterial plants and nonantibacterial plants, indicating that the polyphenols were related to the antibacterial action of these plants. Antibacterial activity of various concentrations of leaf extracts from Japanese persimmon, white cedar, and grape were investigated. Japanese persimmon and white cedar leaf extracts at low concentrations affected L. monocytogenes and V. parahaemolyticus rapidly. With grape leaf extract at low concentrations, the population of L. monocytogenes decreased similarly to Japanese persimmon and white cedar leaves. This study demonstrates that many plants used in cooking for aroma and taste contain polyphenols and exhibit antibacterial activity against foodborne pathogens.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Antibiotic use in food animals: controlling the human health impact.

Resistance to antimicrobial drugs has compromised control of many bacterial pathogens. For foodborne pathogens, the most likely source of resistance is use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals. To control the human health impact from use of antimicrobials in animals, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently announced plans to assess the microbial safety of all antimicrobials intended for use in food-producing animals. This paper describes the history of antimicrobial use and regulation in animals, the public health concern, the current animal drug approval process in the United States, the international perspective, and FDA's proposed procedures to evaluate the human health impact of the antimicrobial effects associated with animal drugs intended for use in food-producing animals. The primary public health goal of the improved regulatory paradigm is to ensure that significant human antimicrobial therapies are not lost due to use of antimicrobials in food animals.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Development of membrane filter holder (MFH) method for recovery of heat-injured Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella typhimurium.

AIMS: A method of recovering sublethally heat-injured bacteria was developed with specific apparatus (membrane filter holder; MFH) which was originally used for Iso-Grid Hydrophobic membrane. filter holder. METHODS AND RESULTS: The procedure used a non-selective agar underlayed with a selective medium with a MFH. A non-selective agar was poured on upper part (compartment A) of MFH, and then injured foodborne pathogens were inoculated on the non-selective medium. After 3-h repair incubation period, selective agar was added to the bottom of the chamber (compartment B) of the MFH and further incubated. By diffusing through the non-selective top agar, selective agents from the underlay medium impart selectivity to the system. CONCLUSIONS: Using the MFH method, recovery of heat-injured foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella typhimurium) were not different (P > 0.05) from recoveries with non-selective media (TSA). However, the recoveries of foodborne pathogens on MFH were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of direct plating on selective medium such as SMAC (MacConkey Sorbitol Agar) or XLD (Xylose Lysine Desoxycholate). SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: In conclusion, the MFH method is a simple and convenient method for recovery of heat-injured foodborne pathogens.

Culture Media↗

PubMed2003

Challenges and approaches to reducing foodborne illness.

Microorganisms have successfully adapted to changes in food production, processing, and preservation techniques, resulting in a number of new and emerging foodborne pathogens and the re-emergence of organisms that have been problematic in the past. To protect public health, science must meet the challenges that result from the remarkable adaptability of foodborne pathogens. However, not all of the challenges of preventing foodborne illness reside in the realm of science. Food safety policy must evolve in response to new scientific understanding of hazards in the food supply and an ever-changing food processing industry. The laws, regulations, and organizations comprising the food safety system frequently lag behind current scientific knowledge of the risks posed by foodborne pathogens. Future systemic changes to enhance food safety will require better understanding of risks associated with specific pathogens occurring in the food supply and the costs and benefits of implementing mitigation strategies.

Consumer Product Safety↗

PubMed2003

Escherichia coli O157:H7 populations in sheep can be reduced by chlorate supplementation.

Ruminant animals are a natural reservoir of the foodborne pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7. Some foodborne pathogens (e.g., E. coli) are equipped with a nitrate reductase that cometabolically reduces chlorate. The intracellular reduction of chlorate to chlorite kills nitrate reductase-positive bacteria; however, species that do not reduce nitrate are not affected by chlorate. Therefore, it has been suggested that ruminants be supplemented with chlorate prior to shipment for slaughter in order to reduce foodborne illnesses in human consumers. Sheep (n = 14) were fed a high-grain ration and were experimentally infected with E. coli O157:H7. These sheep were given an experimental product (XCP) containing the equivalent of either 2.5 mM NaNO3 and 100 mM NaCl (control sheep; n = 7) or 2.5 mM NaNO3 and 100 mM NaClO3 (chlorate [XCP]-treated sheep; n = 7). Control and XCP-treated sheep were treated for 24 h; XCP treatment reduced the population of inoculated E. coli O157:H7 (P < 0.05) from 10(2), 10(5), and 10(5) CFU/g in the rumen, cecum, and rectum, respectively, to < 10(1) CFU/g in all three sections of the gastrointestinal tract. The number of sheep testing positive for E. coli O157:H7 was significantly reduced by XCP treatment. In a similar fashion, total E. coli and coliforms were also reduced (P < 0.05) in all three compartments of the intestinal tract. Intestinal pH, total volatile fatty acid production, and the acetate/propionate ratio were unaffected by XCP treatment. On the basis of these results, it appears that chlorate treatment can be an effective method for the reduction of E. coli O157:H7 populations in ruminant animals immediately prior to slaughter.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Economic costs and trade impacts of microbial foodborne illness.

This article presents the economic costs of foodborne diseases for selected countries, the approaches used to calculate these costs, and a discussion on the interaction between microbial food safety issues and international trade in food. The human illness costs due to foodborne pathogens are estimated most completely in the United States of America, where, each year, 7 foodborne pathogens (Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli O157:H7. Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, and Toxoplasma gondii) cause an estimated 3.3-12.3 million cases of foodborne illness and up to 3900 deaths. These 7 pathogens are found in animal products and cost the United States an estimated $6.5-$34.9 billion (1995 US$) annually. The presence of foodborne pathogens in a country's food supply not only affects the health of the local population, but also represents a potential for spread to pathogens to visitors to the country and to consumers in countries which import food products. With more complete data on foodborne illnesses, deaths, costs and international trade rejections in each country, indicators could be developed by which changes in food safety can be monitored.

Cost of Illness↗

PubMed1997

The risks and prevention of contamination of beef feedlot cattle: the perspective of the United States of America.

There are currently no scientifically defined critical management points or critical control points to manage foodborne pathogens at the pre-harvest level. Research is ongoing: much of the pre-harvest research is funded by producer organisations. The beef industry has Beef Quality Assurance (BQA) programmes in place and these are dynamic. Groups of cattlemen have made a very strong commitment to reducing foodborne pathogens in beef. Fewer Escherichia coli O157:H7 organisms are shed by feedlot cattle near the end of the feeding period than by newly arrived cattle. Moreover, there is less shedding of the organisms in cattle of slaughter age than in younger cattle. The prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 in feedlot cattle is similar to that in range cattle. This suggests that concentrating cattle in feedlot dirt pens does not increase the risk of shedding E. coli organisms. Pen maintenance, considered a good management practice, appears to be an adequate means of keeping pathogen levels in pens low. It is not likely that pre-harvest food safety programmes will eliminate the threat of pathogens such as E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella. The management of foodborne pathogens will become part of an integrated programme to enhance food safety which includes the producer, the packer, the distributors, retailers and the consumer. The feedlot industry initiated a residue avoidance programme several years ago. As a result, the risk of chemical residues in beef from feedlots in the United States of America is near zero. Hazard analysis and critical control point-type prevention programmes, using scientifically based critical management points, will help ensure that the risk remains negligible.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed2004

Evaluation of inoculation method and inoculum drying time for their effects on survival and efficiency of recovery of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes inoculated on the surface of tomatoes.

A study was undertaken to evaluate methods for applying inoculum and to examine the effect of inoculum drying time on survival and recovery of foodborne pathogens inoculated onto the surface of raw, ripe tomatoes. Five-strain mixtures of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella, or Listeria monocytogenes were applied to tomatoes by dip, spot, or spray inoculation methods. Inocula were dried for 1 or 24 h at 22 degrees C before tomatoes were treated with water (control) or chlorine (200 micrograms/ml). Significantly (alpha = 0.05) larger populations (CFU per tomato) of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella were recovered from dipinoculated tomatoes than from spot- or spray-inoculated tomatoes. This difference was attributed to larger numbers of cells adhering to tomatoes subjected to dip inoculation. Populations of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella recovered from spot- and spray-inoculated tomatoes containing the same initial number of cells were not significantly different. Significantly different L. monocytogenes population sizes were recovered from inoculated tomatoes (dip > spot > spray). Populations of pathogens recovered from tomatoes were significantly larger when inocula were dried for 1 h compared with 24 h. Significant differences (water > chlorine) were observed in the sizes of populations for all pathogens recovered from tomatoes treated with chlorine, regardless of inoculation method or drying time. Results indicate that inoculation method, drying time, and treatment affect survival and/or recovery of foodborne pathogens inoculated onto the surface of tomatoes. We recommend that spot inoculation with a drying time of 24 h at 22 degrees C be used with standard methods to determine the efficacy of chlorine and other sanitizers for killing foodborne pathogens on tomatoes.

Bacterial Adhesion↗

PubMed2003

Consumer food-handling behaviors associated with prevention of 13 foodborne illnesses.

To be effective in reducing the incidence of foodborne illness, consumers and food safety educators need information about behaviors that will decrease exposure to foodborne pathogens. A four-round Delphi technique was used to survey nationally recognized experts in food microbiology, epidemiology, food safety education, and food safety policy with the aim of identifying and ranking food-handling and consumption behaviors associated with 13 major foodborne pathogens. The food safety experts ranked behaviors related to keeping foods at safe temperatures as of primary importance in preventing illness caused by Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens and of secondary importance in preventing illness caused by Staphylococcus aureus. The use of a thermometer to cook foods adequately was ranked as of primary importance for the prevention of illness caused by Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella species, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Toxoplasma gondii, and Yersinia enterocolitica, with the avoidance of cross-contamination being ranked as of secondary importance for most of these pathogens. Hand washing was the top-ranked behavior for the prevention of shigellosis. The avoidance of certain foods that are likely to be contaminated was the top-ranked behavior for the prevention of illnesses caused by Listeria monocytogenes, Noroviruses, and Vibrio species. The expert panel's ranking of behaviors for the reduction of the risk of illness caused by major foodborne pathogens can enable consumers to make informed choices about food consumption and handling behaviors and can guide food safety educators in prioritizing their educational efforts.

Consumer Product Safety↗

PubMed1999

Efficacy of oxonia active against selected spore formers.

Alternatives to hydrogen peroxide are being sought for use in aseptic packaging systems because this sterilant is efficacious at temperatures higher than some of the newer packaging materials can tolerate. Earlier in this century, peracetic acid was known to be bactericidal, sporicidal, and virucidal but was not widely used because of handling, toxicity, and stability problems. Sanitizer suppliers have capitalized on the efficacy of hydrogen peroxide, acetic acid, and peracetic acid stabilized with a sequestering agent. Formulations have been improved and marketed as Oxonia Active, and its use as an alternative sterilant to hydrogen peroxide merits evaluation. Oxonia was assessed at a concentration of 2% and a temperature of 40 degrees C against a number of spore-forming organisms, including foodborne pathogens. Spores tested in aqueous suspension showed an order of sensitivity (least to greatest) to Oxonia as follows: Bacillus cereus > B. subtilis A > B. stearothermophilus > B. subtilis var. globigii > B. coagulans > Clostridium sporogenes (PA3679) > C. butyricum > C. botulinum type B (nonproteolytic) > C. botulinum type B (proteolytic) = C. botulinum type A = C. botulinum type E. B. subtilis A and B. stearothermophilus spores tested in the dry state were less sensitive to Oxonia than when tested in aqueous suspension. B. cereus, a foodborne pathogen, proved to be markedly less sensitive to Oxonia under the described test conditions. The decreased sensitivity to Oxonia by the foodborne pathogen B. cereus raises concern about the efficacy of the sterilant for aseptic packaging of low-acid foods. Further work will be needed to determine if this decreased sensitivity is an inherent property of the organism that affords unusual protection against Oxonia or if the challenge parameters selected were at the minimum conditions for efficacy.

Acetates↗

PubMed2001

Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes in and on vacuum packaged Lebanon bologna stored at 3.6 and 13.0 degrees C.

Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, or Listeria monocytogenes was spread onto the surface of Lebanon bologna luncheon slices using sterile glass rods. The inoculated slices were stacked and vacuum packaged. The packages were stored at 3.6 or 13 degrees C. The foodborne pathogens. E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, or L. monocytogenes were reduced in Lebanon bologna during storage at 3.6 or 13 degrees C. The higher storage temperature (13.0 degrees C) resulted in significantly faster destruction of E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes, compared to storage at refrigeration temperature (3.6 degrees C) (P < 0.005). E. coli O157:H7 was the most resistant to destruction among the three foodborne pathogens. A linear destruction of E. coli O157:H7 occurred only after an initial lag period. Storage temperature did not have a significant effect on the rate of destruction of Salmonella Typhimurium. Foodborne pathogens inoculated prior to fermentation did not show any enhanced survival compared to control cells (inoculated after fermentation) during storage of the Lebanon bologna at 3.6 degrees C.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Perspectives on the use of organic acids and short chain fatty acids as antimicrobials.

Organic acids have a long history of being utilized as food additives and preservatives for preventing food deterioration and extending the shelf life of perishable food ingredients. Specific organic acids have also been used to control microbial contamination and dissemination of foodborne pathogens in preharvest and postharvest food production and processing. The antibacterial mechanism(s) for organic acids are not fully understood, and activity may vary depending on physiological status of the organism and the physicochemical characteristics of the external environment. An emerging potential problem is that organic acids have been observed to enhance survivability of acid sensitive pathogens exposed to low pH by induction of an acid tolerance response and that acid tolerance may be linked to increased virulence. Although this situation has implications regarding the use of organic acids, it may only apply to circumstances in which reduced acid levels have induced resistance and virulence mechanisms in exposed organisms. Evaluating effectiveness of organic acids for specific applications requires more understanding general and specific stress response capabilities of foodborne pathogens. Development and application of molecular tools to study pathogen behavior in preharvest and postharvest food production environments will enable dissection of specific bacterial genetic regulation involved in response to organic acids. This could lead to the development of more targeted strategies to control foodborne pathogens with organic acids.

Adaptation, Physiological↗