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PubMed2005

Voxel-based morphometry and stereology provide convergent evidence of the importance of medial prefrontal cortex for fluid intelligence in healthy adults.

We investigated whether a relationship exists between frontal lobe volume and fluid intelligence as measured by both Cattell's Culture Fair test and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Performance scale, but not with crystallized intelligence as measured by the WAIS-R Verbal scale, in healthy adults, using two well-established image analysis techniques applied to high-resolution MR brain images. Firstly, using voxel-based morphometry (VBM), we investigated whether a significant relationship exists between gray matter concentration and fluid intelligence on a voxel-by-voxel basis. Secondly, we applied the Cavalieri method of modern design stereology in combination with point counting to investigate possible relationships between macroscopic volumes of relevant brain regions defined as dorsolateral, dorsomedial, orbitolateral, and orbitomedial prefrontal cortex on the basis of neuroanatomical landmarks, and fluid intelligence. We also examined the effect on these relationships of normalizing regional brain volumes to intracranial volume. VBM analysis revealed a positive correlation between gray matter concentration in the medial region of prefrontal cortex and Culture Fair scores (corrected for multiple comparisons), and also WAIS-R Performance Intelligence sum of scaled scores (SSS) (uncorrected for multiple comparisons before controlling for age, and this converges with the stereological finding of the positive correlation between volume of dorsomedial prefrontal cortex normalized to intracranial volume and Culture Fair scores after controlling for age. WAIS-R Verbal Intelligence SSS showed no correlations. We interpret our findings, from independent analyses of both VBM and stereology, as evidence of the importance of medial prefrontal cortex in supporting fluid intelligence.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Psychopathy in youth and intelligence: an investigation of Cleckley's hypothesis.

Cleckley (1941) hypothesized that true or "primary" psychopathic individuals have "good" intelligence. This study examined the relation between psychopathy and intelligence in 122 detained children and adolescents. We used the Psychopathy Checklist-Youth Version (PCL-YV; Forth, Kosson, & Hare, 2003) to assess psychopathy and administered novel intelligence measures to tap diverse interpretations of the intelligence construct (e.g., traditional and triarchic intelligence). Structural equation modeling indicated that dimensions of psychopathy and intelligence were related in unique and important ways. In particular, psychopathy traits reflecting a superficial and deceitful interpersonal style were positively related to intellectual skills in the verbal realm (Kaufman's Brief Intelligence Test [K-BIT]; Kaufman & Kaufman, 1990) and a nontraditional intellectual measure reflecting creativity, practicality, and analytic thinking as measured by Sternberg's Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT; Sternberg, 1993). Finally, the results also suggested that psychopathy traits reflecting disturbances in affective processing were inversely associated with verbal intellectual abilities. Thus, Cleckley's hypothesis was partially supported by the data, when taking into account the facets of psychopathy and when examining intelligence from the perspective of traditional and more novel and contemporary intellectual models.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Relation between fluid intelligence and frontal lobe functioning in older adults.

This study reports the relations among normal aging, intelligence, and frontal lobe functioning. Intelligence tasks and frontal lobe functioning tasks were administered to 107 adults from two age groups (25 to 46 years and 70 to 99 years). Intelligence measures were assessed with two crystallized tests (WAIS Vocabulary and Information subtests), one fluid intelligence test (Cattell's Matrices), and one mixed, crystallized and fluid test (WAIS Similarities subtest). Frontal functioning was assessed using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and two tests of verbal fluency. Significant age differences in favor of the young were found on the two intelligence tests with a fluid component and on all measures of frontal lobe functioning. Correlational analyses examining the relationship of intelligence measures to frontal variables indicated that these last measures were significantly correlated with only fluid intelligence tests in the elderly group. The implications for the relations among aging, fluid intelligence, and frontal lobe functioning are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Breast feeding and children's intelligence.

Breast feeding was reported in 1992 by Lucas, et al. to provide advantages for the development of intelligence in children of low birth weight, possibly through nutrients or other biological factors found in human breast milk but not cow's milk. Research on breast feeding and intelligence in children of normal birth weight has yielded mixed results, probably because measurement of environmental influences has not been thorough and the range of intelligence components measured has been limited. Our research with 204 3-year-old children of normal birth weight included control measures for the environment and maternal intelligence (Hollings-head socioeconomic status, Home Observation for the Measured Environment, Shipley) and two measures of childhood intelligence (Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised). Controlling for environmental variables and maternal intelligence, initiation of breast feeding predicted scores on intelligence tests at age three. Breast feeding was associated with 4.6-point higher mean in children's intelligence.

Breast Feeding↗

PubMed2003

[Breast feeding and intelligence].

INTRODUCTION: In several studies a positive association between breastfeeding and intellectual development in childhood has been suggested. However, the association between breastfeeding and adult intelligence is unknown, and the purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between duration of breastfeeding and intelligence in young adulthood. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A prospective longitudinal study based on the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort. A mixed-sex sample comprising 973 individuals with a mean age of 27.2 years was assessed with a clinical intelligence test (WAIS) and an all-male sample comprising 2280 individuals was assessed with a military intelligence test (BPP) at the mean age of 18.7 years. Based upon duration of breastfeeding, the samples were divided into five categories. Thirteen potential confounders were included as covariates: Parental social status and education, single mother status, mother's height, age, weight gain during pregnancy, and cigarette consumption during the third trimester, number of pregnancies, estimated gestational age, birth weight, birth length, and indexes of pregnancy and delivery complications. RESULTS: Duration of breastfeeding was associated with significantly higher scores on both the verbal and performance parts of the WAIS. With regression adjustment for potential confounding factors, the full scale IQs were 99.4, 101.7, 102.3, 106.0, and 104.0 for breastfeeding durations of < or = 1 month, 2-3 months, 4-6 months, 7-9 months, and > 9 months (p = 0.003). The corresponding mean scores for the BPP were 38.0, 39.2, 39.9, 40.1, and 40.1 (p = 0.01). Thus, the mean test scores suggested a dose-response relationship for breastfeeding during the first nine months of life and adult intelligence. DISCUSSION: Independent of a wide range of possible confounding factors, a significant positive association between duration of breastfeeding and intelligence was observed in two independent samples of young adults, assessed with two different intelligence tests. Although duration of breastfeeding may correlate with maternal intelligence and with the quality of mother-child interaction, these findings suggest that nutrients in breastmilk may have long-term positive effects on cognitive and intellectual development.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

[Biological versus artificial intelligence: a critical approach].

After brief considerations about intelligence, a comparative study between biologic and artificial intelligence is made. The specialists in Artificial Intelligence found that intelligence is purely a matter of physical symbol manipulation. The enterprise of Artificial Intelligence aims to understand what we might call Brain Intelligence in terms of concepts and techniques of engineering. However the philosophers believed that computer-machine can have syntax, but can never have semantics. In other words, that they can follow rules, such as those of arithmetic or grammar, but not understand what to us are meanings of symbols, such as words. In the present paper it is stressed that brain/mind complex constitutes a monolithic systemic that functions with emergent properties at several levels of hierarchical organization. These hierarchical levels are non-reducible to one another. They are at least three (neuronal, functional, and semantic), and they function within an interactional plan. The brain/mind complex, which transform informations in meanings, deals with problems by means of both logical and non-logical mechanisms; while logic allows the mind to arrange the elements for reasoning, the non-logical mechanisms (fuzzy logic, heuristics, insights) allows the mind to develop strategies to find solutions. The model for construction of the "intelligent machine" is the operating way of the brain/mind complex, which does not always use logical processes. The role of information science in Artificial Intelligence is to search for knowledge itself (virtual knowledge), rather than to simply attempt a logico-mathematical formalization of knowledge.

Artificial Intelligence↗

PubMed2004

Mode of communication and classroom placement impact on speech intelligibility.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of classroom placement and mode of communication on speech intelligibility scores in children aged 8 to 9 years using multichannel cochlear implants. DESIGN: Classroom placement (special education, partial mainstream, and full mainstream) and mode of communication (total communication and auditory-oral) reported via parental rating scales before and 4 times after implantation were the independent variables. Speech intelligibility scores obtained at 8 to 9 years of age were the dependent variables. PARTICIPANTS: The study included 131 congenitally deafened children between the ages of 8 and 9 years who received a multichannel cochlear implant before the age of 5 years. RESULTS: Higher speech intelligibility scores at 8 to 9 years of age were significantly associated with enrollment in auditory-oral programs rather than enrollment in total communication programs, regardless of when the mode of communication was used (before or after implantation). Speech intelligibility at 8 to 9 years of age was not significantly influenced by classroom placement before implantation, regardless of mode of communication. After implantation, however, there were significant associations between classroom placement and speech intelligibility scores at 8 to 9 years of age. Higher speech intelligibility scores at 8 to 9 years of age were associated with classroom exposure to normal-hearing peers in full or partial mainstream placements than in self-contained, special education placements. CONCLUSIONS: Higher speech intelligibility scores in 8- to 9-year-old congenitally deafened cochlear implant recipients were associated with educational settings that emphasize oral communication development. Educational environments that incorporate exposure to normal-hearing peers were also associated with higher speech intelligibility scores at 8 to 9 years of age.

Child↗

PubMed1997

Speech perception skills and speech production intelligibility in French children with prelingual deafness and cochlear implants.

OBJECTIVE: To examine speech perception and production intelligibility in French children with prelingual deafness who received multichannel cochlear implants. DESIGN: Within-subject, repeated-measures design for assessing speech perception and a cross-sectional design for assessing overall speech intelligibility. SETTING: A pediatric cochlear implant center. SUBJECTS: Sixty-four French children with prelingual deafness who received multichannel cochlear implants (mean age at time of implantation, 3 years 11 months) underwent assessment for speech perception. A subset of 16 children who received implants by 3 years of age underwent assessment for speech intelligibility. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Speech perception skills were assessed using phoneme detection, closed-set word and sentence recognition, and modified open-set (MOS) recognition. Speech intelligibility was assessed by asking 50 listeners to identify recorded speech samples from the subjects. Dependent variables for the studies consisted of percent of correct items. RESULTS: After implantation, all children were able to detect phonemes by 3 months. Closed-set word and sentence identification reached 100% accuracy by 48 months (7 children with 4 years of implantation experience). Some children (8 of 48) demonstrated some MOS recognition after 1 year. Modified open-set recognition averaged 67.9% by 42 months (12 children available) and 80% by 48 months (7 children available). Overall speech intelligibility was 4.2% after 1 year, 30.7% after 2 years, 55.2% after 3 years, and 74.2% after 4 years. Within-subject comparison of MOS recognition and overall speech intelligibility scores revealed an insignificant trend for high perceptual performance to be associated with higher speech intelligibility scores (P = .17). There also was a tendency for higher performance to be associated with longer implantation experience. CONCLUSIONS: Speech perception scores appear to increase with increased experience using a cochlear implant. Overall speech intelligibility appears to steadily improve with increased experience and appears to be poorly related to perceptual performance on MOS recognition tasks.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMed2000

Social complexity and social intelligence.

When we talk of the 'nature of intelligence', or any other attribute, we may be referring to its essential structure, or to its place in nature, particularly the function it has evolved to serve. Here I examine both, from the perspective of the evolution of intelligence in primates. Over the last 20 years, the Social (or 'Machiavellian') Intelligence Hypothesis has gained empirical support. Its core claim is that the intelligence of primates is primarily an adaptation to the special complexities of primate social life. In addition to this hypothesis about the function of intellect, a secondary claim is that the very structure of intelligence has been moulded to be 'social' in character, an idea that presents a challenge to orthodox views of intelligence as a general-purpose capacity. I shall outline the principal components of social intelligence and the environment of social complexity it engages with. This raises the question of whether domain specificity is an appropriate characterization of social intelligence and its subcomponents, like theory of mind. As a counter-argument to such specificity I consider the hypothesis that great apes exhibit a cluster of advanced cognitive abilities that rest on a shared capacity for second-order mental representation.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

A comparative study of ERP correlates of psychometric and Piagetian intelligence measures in normal and hyperactive children.

Verbal and performance scores of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R 1981) and of a Piagetian battery, the Cognitive Development Scale for Children (EDC 1984), were obtained on 30 normal control and 19 hyperactive 6-8-year-old children. Amplitudes and latencies of a fronto-central P250 and of the parieto-occipital N250, P350 and P500 were measured concurrently in 4 categorization tasks derived from tests of the WISC-R and EDC batteries. Spearman correlations were computed between the intelligence and the ERP factor scores. Results showed that age-related and age-corrected Wechsler's scores were correlated with similar ERP changes (reduced amplitude, decreased latency). With regard to the amplitude changes, each type of intelligence was associated with a specific ERP pattern. The verbal scores were correlated with the P350 and the P500 amplitudes, and the performance scores with the frontal P250 and occipital N250 amplitudes. By contrast, Piagetian development and intelligence scores yielded ERP correlates in the opposite direction: P500 amplitude was negatively correlated with raw EDC scores, but positively with scaled EDC scores. In addition, Piagetian intelligence was not related to the general peak latency decrease with age. In hyperactive children, additional negative correlations were found between P250 amplitude and the subjects' verbal test scores. Correlations with some performance tests that were negative in normal controls, were positive in hyperactive children. In addition, latency-based correlations found in normal controls were lacking in hyperactive children. These findings provide strong evidence that intelligence comprises different components related to different subsets of cognitive processes, as indexed by different ERP waves. They also suggest that the development and intelligence do not always rely on the same changes, and that intelligence forms may not be referred to the same use of the same processes in hyperactive and normal children.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗

PubMed2005

Vowel intelligibility in classical singing.

Vowel intelligibility during singing is an important aspect of communication during performance. The intelligibility of isolated vowels sung by Western classically trained singers has been found to be relatively low, in fact, decreasing as pitch rises, and it is lower for women than for men. The lack of contextual cues significantly deteriorates vowel intelligibility. It was postulated in this study that the reduced intelligibility of isolated sung vowels may be partly from the vowels used by the singers in their daily vocalises. More specifically, if classically trained singers sang only a few American English vowels during their vocalises, their intelligibility for American English vowels would be less than for those classically trained singers who usually vocalize on most American English vowels. In this study, there were 21 subjects (15 women, 6 men), all Western classically trained performers as well as teachers of classical singing. They sang 11 words containing 11 different American English vowels, singing on two pitches a musical fifth apart. Subjects were divided into two groups, those who normally vocalize on 4, 5, or 6 vowels, and those who sing all 11 vowels during their daily vocalises. The sung words were cropped to isolate the vowels, and listening tapes were created. Two listening groups, four singing teachers and five speech-language pathologists, were asked to identify the vowels intended by the singers. Results suggest that singing fewer vowels during daily vocalises does not decrease intelligibility compared with singing the 11 American English vowels. Also, in general, vowel intelligibility was lower with the higher pitch, and vowels sung by the women were less intelligible than those sung by the men. Identification accuracy was about the same for the singing teacher listeners and the speech-language pathologist listeners except for the lower pitch, where the singing teachers were more accurate.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Pregnancy outcome and intelligence at age five years.

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to determine the influence of being small for gestational age at term and being preterm < 34 weeks on cognitive functioning at age 5 years. STUDY DESIGN: Five hundred forty-six children of black low-income mothers, nearly all at risk for being small for gestational age, followed up prenatally with early ultrasonographic gestational age dating, were classified as either term appropriate for gestational age, term small for gestational age, or preterm at < 34 weeks. At a mean of 5.5 +/- 0.5 years, a Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised intelligence quotient test was administered. An intelligence quotient < 70 was used to define mental retardation. Univariate and multivariate analyses adjusted for maternal age, smoking, education and language skills, home environment, and child gender and preschool attendance were performed. RESULTS: Term small-for-gestational-age and preterm infants at < 34 weeks had 4 and 6 point intelligence quotient reductions compared with term appropriate-for-gestational-age infants. In the regression analyses these differences in intelligence quotient remained significant after confounders were adjusted. High maternal receptive language level (8 points), a positive home environment (5 points), and attendance at preschool (5 points) were each significantly associated with an increase in intelligence quotient. CONCLUSION: Both term small-for-gestational-age infants and those born at < 34 weeks had a significantly lower mean intelligence quotient, and small-for-gestational-age infants had an increased risk of mental retardation at age 5 years. Higher maternal language skills, a positive home environment, and attendance at preschool each were associated with an increase in the mean intelligence quotient of 5 to 7 points.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Relationships among types of speech intelligibility in pediatric users of cochlear implants.

UNLABELLED: Twenty pediatric users of cochlear implants were administered three tests of speech intelligibility: (1) a test of contrast perception intelligibility, (2) a test of contrast production intelligibility, and (3) a test of production sentence intelligibility. Sixty adults with normal hearing served as listener judges for the two speech production tasks, and percent correct scores were generated for each of the three tasks. Correlational analyses showed significant correlations among overall scores for the three tasks. However, scores for individual feature classes from the contrast perception task were not correlated with their corresponding contrast production feature class scores, and only some of the feature class scores were correlated significantly with sentence intelligibility. We conclude that although these three types of intelligibility are related at a gross level, relationships are more tenuous at finer levels of analysis, suggesting that the separate skills may need to be addressed separately in remediation. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: As a result of this activity, the participant will be able to differentiate various methods for assessing speech intelligibility and describe the relationships among different types of speech intelligibility in pediatric users of cochlear implants.

Child↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Intelligibility as a linear combination of dimensions in dysarthric speech.

UNLABELLED: Speech samples of 79 dysarthric patients (native speakers of English) were judged by two experienced judges by means of a perceptual rating scale covering the four main dimensions of speech production: voice quality, articulation, nasality and prosody as well as overall intelligibility. In order to determine the relative influence of the four basic dimensions on intelligibility in this study group, a multiple regression model was applied. This model shows that intelligibility can be expressed as a linear combination of weighted perceptual dimensions (R2 = 0.89). This expression reveals the relative importance of the individual dimensions on overall intelligibility. Articulation is shown to be the strongest contributor to intelligibility. A group of 16 dysarthric patients (native speakers of Dutch) was used as a control group in order to evaluate the validity of the expression. Judged and calculated ratings (within the 95% prediction intervals) were in agreement for 75% of the patients. These findings may contribute in the construction of a better balanced measure of functional intelligibility. LEARNING OUTCOMES: 2. The impact of articulation on intelligibility is dominant but inclusion of the dimensions "nasality", "voice" and "prosody" results in a more balanced estimation of intelligibility.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Alcohol, intelligence and violent crime in young males.

Research has demonstrated a relationship between alcohol and violent behavior, but proof of a causal connection remains elusive. A recent review concluded that the key task that remained was to identify sub-groups of the population for which alcohol promotes violence. Because alcohol might induce violence by causing cognitive disruption (e.g., misunderstood communication), less intelligent persons could be vulnerable because they start out closer to the lower limit of comprehension. Our objective is to investigate the effect of lower intelligence on the alcohol/violence relationship. This analysis uses data from the Buffalo Longitudinal Study of Young Men to investigate this hypothesis. Males, 16 to 19 years of age (N = 596), were selected from Buffalo, NY, by random digit dialing. High-risk males were oversampled. Two interviews were conducted 18 months apart, including drinking, criminal offenses, and psychological traits. Verbal intelligence was measured by the Ammons Quick Test and visual-motor intelligence by the Trail Making Test. An analysis of covariance was conducted with wave 2 average alcohol consumption and both measures of intelligence as independent variables, violent offending as the dependent variable, and race, wave 1 alcohol and wave 1 violence as covariates. Results show a positive main effect of wave 2 alcohol consumption, but also interactions with both verbal and visual-motor intelligence. These interactions indicate that the prevalence of violence increases significantly at low intelligence and high alcohol consumption levels. A parallel analysis with nonviolent offending as the dependent variable failed to find significant interactions. The combination of heavy drinking and lower intelligence is associated with a synergistic surge of violent behavior.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Breath-group intelligibility in dysarthria: characteristics and underlying correlates.

PURPOSE: This study was designed to determine whether within-speaker fluctuations in speech intelligibility occurred among speakers with dysarthria who produced a reading passage, and, if they did, whether selected linguistic and acoustic variables predicted the variations in speech intelligibility. METHOD: Participants with dysarthria included a total of 10 persons with Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; a control group of 10 neurologically normal speakers was also studied. Each participant read a passage that was subsequently separated into consecutive breath groups for estimates of individual breath group intelligibility. Sixty listeners participated in 2 perceptual experiments, generating intelligibility scores across speakers and for each breath group produced by speakers with dysarthria. RESULTS: Individual participants with dysarthria had fluctuations in intelligibility across breath groups. Breath groups of participants with dysarthria had fewer average words and reduced interquartile ranges for the 2nd formant, the latter a global measure of articulatory mobility. Regression analyses with intelligibility measures as the criterion variable and linguistic and acoustic measures as predictor variables produced significant functions both within and across speakers, but the solutions were not the same. CONCLUSIONS: Linguistic or acoustic variables that predict across-speaker variations in speech intelligibility may not function in the same way when within-speaker variations in intelligibility are considered.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Some relationships between intelligence and auditory discrimination.

Some of the earliest scientific attempts to understand the nature of intelligence investigated differences in sensory discrimination and reaction time. There is once again interest in the relations between such simple abilities and intelligence, partly as a result of the application of information-processing paradigms to the study of intelligence. Correlations in the range of .3 to .8 have been reported between psychometric measures of intelligence and performance on simple cognitive, sensory, and motor tasks. The current study reports correlations between scores on a battery of auditory discrimination tasks and measures of intelligence and academic aptitude in two samples of college students. The correlations between the intellectual and academic aptitude measures and the total percent correct on the auditory battery ranged from 45 to 59. These results are consistent with recent findings of significant relationships between simple sensory, cognitive, and motor abilities and psychometric intelligence as well as with much earlier reports by Spearman (1904) and others of relationships between pitch discrimination and intelligence. An implication of these findings is that intelligence is a potential confounding variable in studies of the auditory perceptual abilities of various clinical populations.

Auditory Perception↗

PubMed1993

Speech intelligibility of children with cochlear implants, tactile aids, or hearing aids.

Speech intelligibility was measured in 31 children who used the 3M/House single-channel implant (n = 12), the Nucleus 22-Channel Cochlear Implant System (n = 15), or the Tactaid II + two-channel vibrotactile aid (n = 4). The subjects were divided into subgroups based on age at onset of deafness (early or late). The speech intelligibility of the experimental subjects was compared to that of children who were profoundly hearing impaired who used conventional hearing aids (n = 12) or no sensory aid (n = 2). The subjects with early onset of deafness who received their single- or multichannel cochlear implant before age 10 demonstrated the highest speech intelligibility, whereas subjects who did not receive their device until after age 10 had the poorest speech intelligibility. There was no obvious difference in the speech intelligibility scores of these subjects as a function of type of device (implant or tactile aid). On the average, the postimplant or tactile aid speech intelligibility of the subjects with early onset of deafness was similar to that of hearing aid users with hearing levels between 100 and 110 dB HL and limited hearing in the high frequencies. The speech intelligibility of subjects with late onset of deafness showed marked deterioration after the onset of deafness with relatively large improvements by most subjects after they received a single- or multichannel implant. The one subject with late onset of deafness who used a tactile aid showed no improvement in speech intelligibility.

Age Factors↗