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PubMed2003

Individual stopping times and cognitive control: converging evidence for the stop signal task from a continuous tracking paradigm.

The present study introduces a continuous tracking procedure to investigate cognitive stopping in individual trials. Our measure of stopping performance had a mean similar to mean stopping times estimated in the stop signal paradigm, suggesting a common underlying process. Additional findings indicate that stopping performance and tracking performance were dissociable. First, while stopping times were primarily affected by stop signal modality, tracking performance was primarily affected by tracking difficulty. Second, tracking performance influenced tracking but not stopping in immediately following trials. Stopping influenced neither tracking performance nor stopping in immediately following trials. Finally, there was no correlation between tracking performance and stopping performance, or any dependency between them as found in the conditional means.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Anxiety and adjustment levels among the visually and hearing impaired and their relationship to locus of control, cognitive, social, and biographical variables.

Forty-five hearing-impaired and 40 visually impaired male residential school children aged 6 to 16 years were administered measures of adjustment, anxiety, and locus of control (LOC). Scores related to intelligence and academic level, teacher and peer acceptance, and biographical variables were also obtained. The findings show that the correlates of anxiety and adjustment differed qualitatively as well as quantitatively between the groups.

Achievement↗
PubMed1994

Cognitive control of eating behaviour and the disinhibition effect.

Restrained eaters have been reported to overeat following a high caloric preload, a phenomenon referred to as the disinhibition effect. However this effect has not been found when subjects were classified by the restraint subscales of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ; Stunkard & Messick, 1985) or the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (van Strien et al., 1986). The present study investigates the disinhibition effect in 133 normal-weight young women, using a two-factorial classification including the TFEQ-restraint and the TFEQ-disinhibition scale. The subjects were requested to consume ice-cream ad libitum during a taste test following a 200-ml milkshake preload or without preload. The results show that the behavioural disinhibition effect occurs only in subjects with simultaneous high scores on both subscales. In addition, subjects with high disinhibition scores consumed more ice-cream than low disinhibition subjects irrespective of their degree of restraint. While subjects with a more rigid control of eating behaviour did not show a difference in the amount of ice-cream consumed with or without preload, subjects with a more flexible control of eating behaviour reduced their intake following the preload condition. With regard to the Revised Restraint Scale (RRS Herman & Polivy, 1980) multiple regression results show that high RRS scores may be due to either higher TFEQ-restraint or higher TFEQ-disinhibition scores. The interpretation of the results favours the renaming of the TFEQ-disinhibition scale to "susceptibility to eating problems" because high scores on this scale indicate overeating in a variety of situations without requiring prior inhibition i.e. dietary restraint. It is supposed that high susceptibility to eating problems may be caused by rigid control of eating behaviour, whereas flexible control of eating behaviour may be a less problematic strategy of long-term weight control.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Models-of-self and models-of-others as related to facial muscle reactions at different levels of cognitive control.

The hypotheses of this investigation were based on attachment theory and Bowlby's conception of "internal working models", supposed to consist of one mainly emotional (model-of-self) and one more conscious cognitive structure (model-of-others), which are assumed to operate at different temporal stages of information processing. Facial muscle reactions in individuals with positive versus negative internal working models were compared at different stages of information processing. The Relationship Scale Questionnaire (RSQ) was used to categorize subjects into positive or negative model-of-self and model-of-others and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was used to measure trait anxiety (STAI-T). Pictures of happy and angry faces followed by backward masking stimuli were exposed to 61 subjects at three different exposure times (17 ms, 56 ms, 2,350 ms) in order to elicit reactions first at an automatic level and then consecutively at more cognitively elaborated levels. Facial muscle reactions were recorded by electromyography (EMG), a higher corrugator activity representing more negative emotions and a higher zygomaticus activity more positive emotions. In line with the hypothesis, subjects with a negative model-of-self scored significantly higher on STAI-T than subjects with a positive model-of-self. They also showed an overall stronger corrugator than zygomatic activity, giving further evidence of a negative tonic affective state. At the longest exposure time (2,350 ms), representing emotionally regulated responses, negative model-of-self subjects showed a significantly stronger corrugator response and reported more negative feelings than subjects with a positive model-of-self. These results supported the hypothesis that subjects with a negative model-of-self would show difficulties in self-regulation of negative affect. In line with expectations, model-of-others, assumed to represent mainly knowledge structures, did not interact with the physiological emotional measures employed, facial muscle reactions or tonic affective state.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Sensory-motor gating and cognitive control by the brainstem cholinergic system.

As an essential component of ascending activating systems, cholinergic neurons with diffuse projections are supposed to be involved in the regulation of cognitive processes such as attention, consciousness, learning, and memory. As for the role of cholinergic projections from the basal forebrain nuclei to cerebral cortical regions including hippocampus, a couple of models have been proposed that acetylcholine facilitates extrinsic inputs to the cortex and inhibits intracortical processing. In this review, to explore the possibility that there exists a generalized principle on the role of cholinergic systems in the brain, we summarized the knowledge so far obtained on the action of a brainstem cholinergic nucleus, the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTN) at their target regions. By in vitro experiments we clarified that cholinergic inputs to the intermediate layer of the superior colliculus, presumably originating from the PPTN, facilitate generation of its motor outputs for the initiation of saccades. Furthermore, cholinergic inputs may enhance excitatory responses of mesopontine dopaminergic cells, for instance to reward-related signals. In addition, we observed that PPTN neurons showed multi-modal activities in behaving monkeys; their activities were related to execution and preparation of saccades, the level of task performance, and reward. The multi-modal activities encoded in the PPTN may suggest that PPTN associates movement-related activities with those related to task performance and reward. Together with the already reported facilitatory action on the sensory processing at the visual thalamus, these observations suggest that the brainstem cholinergic system facilitates the central processes for motor command generation and extrinsic sensory processing. For our final goal of exploring the general working principle of the cholinergic systems, further studies are needed to clarify the effects of the brainstem cholinergic system on the intrinsic processing in the brain.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Cognitive control differences in violent juvenile inpatients.

A stepwise discriminant analysis was used on a calibration sample (n = 135) of dangerous and nondangerous juvenile inpatients to determine which demographic, psychosocial, and cognitive variables best distinguished the violent inpatients. The resulting statistical model was cross-validated on the remainder of the sample (n = 123). Results show that the violent inpatients were more likely to be younger males whose family had a history of criminal behavior and extensive family discord. Moreover, the cognitive variables showed that violent inpatients showed differences in attention and memory, especially when they were processing aggressive stimuli. Results are discussed in terms of the potential ability of cognitive psychology to adopt an ecological perspective and to contribute to forensic assessment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching.

Predictions concerning development, interrelations, and possible independence of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility were tested in 325 participants (roughly 30 per age from 4 to 13 years and young adults; 50% female). All were tested on the same computerized battery, designed to manipulate memory and inhibition independently and together, in steady state (single-task blocks) and during task-switching, and to be appropriate over the lifespan and for neuroimaging (fMRI). This is one of the first studies, in children or adults, to explore: (a) how memory requirements interact with spatial compatibility and (b) spatial incompatibility effects both with stimulus-specific rules (Simon task) and with higher-level, conceptual rules. Even the youngest children could hold information in mind, inhibit a dominant response, and combine those as long as the inhibition required was steady-state and the rules remained constant. Cognitive flexibility (switching between rules), even with memory demands minimized, showed a longer developmental progression, with 13-year-olds still not at adult levels. Effects elicited only in Mixed blocks with adults were found in young children even in single-task blocks; while young children could exercise inhibition in steady state it exacted a cost not seen in adults, who (unlike young children) seemed to re-set their default response when inhibition of the same tendency was required throughout a block. The costs associated with manipulations of inhibition were greater in young children while the costs associated with increasing memory demands were greater in adults. Effects seen only in RT in adults were seen primarily in accuracy in young children. Adults slowed down on difficult trials to preserve accuracy; but the youngest children were impulsive; their RT remained more constant but at an accuracy cost on difficult trials. Contrary to our predictions of independence between memory and inhibition, when matched for difficulty RT correlations between these were as high as 0.8, although accuracy correlations were less than half that. Spatial incompatibility effects and global and local switch costs were evident in children and adults, differing only in size. Other effects (e.g., asymmetric switch costs and the interaction of switching rules and switching response-sites) differed fundamentally over age.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Task switching and novelty processing activate a common neural network for cognitive control.

The abrupt onset of a novel event captures attention away from, and disrupts, ongoing task performance. Less obvious is that intentional task switching compares with novelty-induced behavioral distraction. Here we explore the hypothesis that intentional task switching and attentional capture by a novel distracter both activate a common neural network involved in processing contextual novelty [Barcelo, F., Periáñez, J. A., & Knight, R. T. Think differently: A brain orienting response to task novelty. NeuroReport, 13, 1887-1892, 2002.]. Event-related potentials were recorded in two task-cueing paradigms while 16 subjects sorted cards following either two (color or shape; two-task condition) or three (color, shape, or number; three-task condition) rules of action. Each card was preceded by a familiar tone cueing the subject either to switch or to repeat the previous rule. Novel sound distracters were interspersed in one of two blocks of trials in each condition. Both novel sounds and task-switch cues impaired responses to the following visual target. Novel sounds elicited novelty P3 potentials with their usual peak latency and frontal-central scalp distribution. Familiar tonal switch cues in the three- and two-task conditions elicited brain potentials with a similar latency and morphology as the novelty P3, but with relatively smaller amplitudes over frontal scalp regions. Covariance and principal component analyses revealed a sustained frontal negative potential that was distorting concurrent novelty P3 activity to the tonal switch cues. When this frontal negativity was statistically removed, P3 potentials to novel sounds and task-switch cues showed similar scalp topographies. The degree of activation in the novelty P3 network seemed to be a function of the information (entropy) conveyed by the eliciting stimulus for response selection, over and above its relative novelty, probability of occurrence, task relevance, or feedback value. We conclude that novelty P3 reflects transient activation in a neural network involved in updating task set information for goal-directed action selection and might thus constitute one key element in a central bottleneck for attentional control.

Acoustic Stimulation↗