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PubMed2006

The distance-time relationship over a century of running Olympic performances: A limit on the critical speed concept.

We analyse the evolution of the slope (critical speed) and the y-intercept (anaerobic distance capacity) of the linear distance-time relationship over a century of Olympic running performances. The distance-time relationship of each Olympic Games (1920-2004) was plotted using the performances in the 800-, 1500- and 5000-m track events. Values for critical speed and anaerobic distance capacity were determined by linear modelling. Mean performances for the 800, 1500 and 5000 m were 104.9 +/- 1.5 s (1.4%), 217.2 +/- 2.8 s (1.3%) and 808.9 +/- 18.4 s (2.3%), respectively. Critical speed improved during the first three-quarters of the twentieth century to reach a plateau in 1984. This is in accordance with the literature (Peronnet & Thibault, 1989) and suggests that "human aerobic endurance" has improved within the century (+13.4%) and tends to stabilize. Anaerobic distance capacity was highly variable over the century (coefficient of variation = 9.4%) and did not show a linear improvement over the years as has previously been suggested (Peronnet & Thibault, 1989). This could be due to an artefact in the application of the two-parameter model to only three Olympic performances. A limitation to the use of this linear mathematical model to fit physiological data may have been demonstrated.

Anaerobic Threshold↗

PubMed2006

The role of effort in moderating the anxiety-performance relationship: Testing the prediction of processing efficiency theory in simulated rally driving.

We tested some of the key predictions of processing efficiency theory using a simulated rally driving task. Two groups of participants were classified as either dispositionally high or low anxious based on trait anxiety scores and trained on a simulated driving task. Participants then raced individually on two similar courses under counterbalanced experimental conditions designed to manipulate the level of anxiety experienced. The effort exerted on the driving tasks was assessed though self-report (RSME), psychophysiological measures (pupil dilation) and visual gaze data. Efficiency was measured in terms of efficiency of visual processing (search rate) and driving control (variability of wheel and accelerator pedal) indices. Driving performance was measured as the time taken to complete the course. As predicted, increased anxiety had a negative effect on processing efficiency as indexed by the self-report, pupillary response and variability of gaze data. Predicted differences due to dispositional levels of anxiety were also found in the driving control and effort data. Although both groups of drivers performed worse under the threatening condition, the performance of the high trait anxious individuals was affected to a greater extent by the anxiety manipulation than the performance of the low trait anxious drivers. The findings suggest that processing efficiency theory holds promise as a theoretical framework for examining the relationship between anxiety and performance in sport.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Goal orientation profile differences on perceived motivational climate, perceived peer relationships, and motivation-related responses of youth athletes.

The aims of this study were twofold: (a) to determine if dispositional achievement goal orientation profiles that are reported in the literature would be observed in a sample of youth athletes, and (b) to examine potential achievement goal orientation profile differences on perceptions of the motivational climate, perceptions of peer relationships, and motivation-related responses. Male soccer players (n=223) aged 9-12 years (mean=10.9, s=0.6) completed a multi-section questionnaire containing assessments of dispositional goal (task, ego) orientations, the perceived task- and ego-involving features of the motivational climate, perceived peer acceptance and friendship quality (positive friendship quality, conflict), perceived ability, soccer enjoyment, and satisfaction with one's performance and the team. Four profiles were observed that closely matched those observed by Hodge and Petlichkoff (2000), though in the present study a lower proportion of participants exhibited achievement goal profiles consisting of relatively high ego orientation. Achievement goal profile differences were found for all variables except positive friendship quality, with a general trend for those reporting relatively lower task goal orientation to exhibit less adaptive responses. Overall, the findings support achievement goal frameworks (e.g. Nicholls, 1989) and suggest that further examination of dispositional achievement goals may afford a deeper understanding of social relationships and motivational processes in youth sport.

Achievement↗

PubMed2006

Expectancy effects in tennis: the impact of opponents' pre-match non-verbal behaviour on male tennis players.

In this study, we examined the impact of a male opponent's pre-match body language and clothing (general vs. sports-specific) on how his performances were judged by an observer. Forty male tennis players viewed videos of a male target tennis player warming up and then observed playing footage of the target. Each participant viewed the target player warming up displaying one of four combinations of body language and clothing (positive body language/tennis-specific clothing; positive body language/general sportswear; negative body language/tennis-specific clothing; negative body language/general sportswear). Participants rated the performance of the tennis player and gave their perceptions of the likely outcome of a tennis match with the target player. Analyses of variance indicated that clothing and body language had an interactive effect on both outcome expectations and ratings of performance. The findings support the contention that the initial impressions athletes form of their opponents can influence the way in which they judge the performances of opponents and their perceived likelihood of success against the same opponents.

Adult↗

PubMed2007

Kicks from the penalty mark in soccer: the roles of stress, skill, and fatigue for kick outcomes.

The soccer "penalty shootout" in the knock-out phase of major international tournaments is one of the most dramatic events in international soccer. The outcome of these kicks is typically attributed to factors such as psychology (e.g. coping with stress), skill (e.g. kicking technique), physiology (e.g. overcoming the fatigue of 120 min play), and chance (e.g. in what direction the goalkeeper moves). The purpose of this study was to use internet game record data to estimate the relative importance of these performance components for the outcome of penalty kicks in international matches. Data were collected from soccer statistics internet sites on all 41 penalty shootouts and 409 kicks taken in the World Cup, European Championships, and Copa America between 1976 and 2004. The results showed that the importance of the kicks (indicative of stress) was negatively related to the outcomes of the kicks, whereas skill and fatigue were less, or not, related to outcome. It was concluded that psychological components are most influential for the outcome of penalty kicks. We recommend that practitioners work with players to reduce the perceived importance of each kick.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2007

Situated analysis of elite trampolinists' problems in competition using retrospective interviews.

The aims of this study were to identify and analyse elite athletes' problems in competition. A situated cognition approach placed the emphasis on athletes' actions (i.e. cognitions and behaviours), which were considered to emerge from couplings with selected elements of the context. Fifty-two exercises performed by 10 elite trampolinists were analysed. Field observations, structured interviews, and self-confrontation interviews were conducted and transcribed, and used together with behavioural descriptions derived from video recordings. Performance problems were selected from these reports and from the major infringements of trampoline rules. Qualitative analysis identified the meaningful units of action and their semiotic components for each problem. Four categories of problem were identified and noted to appear either separately or jointly while performing: (a) finding the best moment to begin the performance; (b) finding and maintaining the best mode of involvement to end the performance; (c) recovering normal sensory-motor capacity to perform; and (d) solving problems quickly and definitively while performing. The results suggest that the study of action -- situation couplings in sports, as well as of their constantly evolving dynamics, not only reveals elite athletes' psychological activity, but is vital to a deeper understanding of these couplings.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2007

Stressors, social support, and effects upon performance in golf.

In this study, we extended the work of Rees and Hardy (2004) by examining the main and stress-buffering effects of social support upon sports performance in a different context, using a different outcome measure, and a specific time-frame. A high-level performance sample of 117 male golfers (mean age 24.8, s = 8.3) completed measures of social support and stressors before competitions. Performance outcome was recorded. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed significant (P < 0.05) main effects for stressors upon performance in 8 of the 11 models tested (R2 = 0.08 - 0.21). Over and above the variance accounted for by stressors, there were significant (P < 0.05) main effects for social support upon performance in all models tested (DeltaR2 = 0.10 - 0.24). In all models, stressors were associated with worse performance, whereas social support was associated with better performance. There were no significant interactions (stress-buffering effects). Main effects for social support upon performance suggest that social support may have aided performance directly, regardless of the level of stress.

Adult↗

PubMed2026

External load metrics and monitoring in women's football match play: A systematic review.

This systematic review aimed to identify the most commonly used variables for monitoring external load during elite women's football matches and to compare reporting practices internationally and in Brazil. Searches were conducted in Web of Science, PubMed, and SciELO using the PICOS framework between February and March 2026, resulting in the inclusion of 35 studies. The main outcomes analysed were total distance covered (TD), distance covered across speed zones (HSR, VHSR, sprint), number of accelerations and decelerations, and maximum speed. TD and distance covered across speed zones were the most frequently reported indicators (94.3%), followed by HSR (82.8%) and sprint distance (68.5%). Considerable variability was observed in the classification of speed zones and thresholds used to define accelerations and decelerations, limiting comparisons between studies. External load values varied according to playing position and competition level, with international matches generally imposing greater demands than national competitions. Brazilian research remains limited and demonstrates notable methodological variability. This review proposes standardised speed and acceleration/deceleration thresholds based on the most recurrent ranges reported in the literature, supporting improved consistency in monitoring practices across elite women's football contexts.

Humans↗

PubMed1986

Home advantage in soccer: a retrospective analysis.

The existence of home advantage has been established for all major professional team sports in England and North America. The advantage was found to be greatest in soccer, with the home team currently obtaining about 64% of all points gained in the English Football League. Home advantage has changed very little since the formation of the League in 1888 and there are only small variations between the four Divisions of the League. The advantage is less marked in local derbies, in the FA Cup and in nonprofessional competitions. It is greater in the European Cup and increases as the stages of the competition progress. The allocation of three points, instead of two, for a win in the Football League has not changed home advantage, but its effect has been greatly reduced in the GM Vauxhall Conference where an away win gains more points than a home win. The statistical evidence suggests that crowd support and travel fatigue contribute less to home advantage in soccer than do the less easily quantifiable benefits of familiarity with conditions when playing at home. Further possible explanations for the advantage are discussed in the light of findings in other sports.

Competitive Behavior↗

PubMed1988

Precompetitive anxiety and motor performance: a psychophysiological examination.

Male volunteer subjects (27) completed a 5-week habituation period during which practise was undertaken on three motor performance tests. Tests were of serial reaction time, visuomotor ability and muscular power. Following stabilization of performance subjects entered an experimental period where they performed the tests before an evaluative audience on one occasion, and against a matched opponent, also before an evaluative audience on the final occasion. Preperformance measures were obtained of neuroendocrine activity, anticipatory heart rate and state anxiety. Significant precompetition elevations in state anxiety, heart rate and adrenaline levels were observed, supporting the notion that the exposure was perceived as stressful by subjects. Significant correlations were obtained between adrenaline levels and both state and trait anxiety scores. Results showed a significant increase in performance compared to habituation levels for all three tests in the audience condition. In the competitive situation against a matched opponent, performance level for the visuomotor and power tests declined significantly compared to the previous session performed before an audience. Serial reaction time performance showed a continuing upward trend, although failing to achieve significance. Changes in performance are discussed with reference to cue-utilization explanations and broader cognitive resource limitations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Time phases and the individual psychological crisis in sports competition: theory and research findings.

A conceptual model of the development of an athlete's individual psychological crisis during competition has recently been proposed and applied to basketball. In this article the diagnostic value of the time dimension with regard to such a process of crisis development is investigated. The relevance of six time phases for the diagnosis of individual psychological crisis during the competition is discussed in detail. The present study was conducted on 28 basketball experts who completed a 'phases of competition' questionnaire using the components of the Bayesian likelihood ratio (diagnostic value) for each phase. Results revealed that time limits can be determined unanimously and that the proposed phases do have a considerable diagnostic relevance as predicted on theoretical grounds. Various aspects related to the validation and the practical applicability of the present research are briefly discussed.

Basketball↗

PubMed1990

Psychological characteristics of male gymnasts: differences between competitive levels.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether any differences exist in the cognitive and behavioural strategies of gymnasts competing at different elite levels. Thirty-eight male gymnasts competing at different competitive levels in an Australian gymnastic championship completed a standardized questionnaire prior to the first day of the competition. The questionnaire focused on a number of psychological factors that may affect both training and competition. Using both t-tests and simple discriminant function analysis, it was revealed that gymnasts competing at different elite levels could be distinguished on the basis of two psychological factors, psychological recovery and self-confidence, as well as the behavioural measure, training hours. Specifically, gymnasts competing at higher elite levels versus those at lower elite levels, were better able to recover from their competitive mistakes, were more confident and trained longer per week.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Timing and method of increased carbohydrate intake to cope with heavy training, competition and recovery.

Based upon the fact that fatigue during intense prolonged exercise is commonly due to depletion of muscle and liver glycogen which limits both training and competitive performance, this paper has proposed extraordinary dietary practices which generally advocate high carbohydrate intake at all times before, during and after exercise. The simple goal is to have as much carbohydrate in the body as possible during the latter stages of prolonged intense exercise when the ability for intense exercise usually becomes limiting to performance. This theory is put into practice by recommending that carbohydrate intake after exhaustive exercise should average 50 g per 2 h of mostly moderate and high glycaemic carbohydrate foods. The aim should be to ingest a total of about 600 g in 24 h. Carbohydrate intake should not be avoided during the 4 h period before exercise and in fact it is best to eat at least 200 g during this time. When possible, carbohydrate should be ingested during exercise, generally in the form of solutions containing glucose/sucrose/maltodextrins, at a rate of 30-60 g h-1. Emphasis has been placed upon eating the optimal amount and best type of carbohydrate at the proper times because these practices demand a large amount of food. When diet is not carefully planned according to these guidelines, endurance athletes tend to consume too little carbohydrate because they become satiated with high fat in their diet and they go through periods in the day when recovery of glycogen stores is suboptimal and thus precious time is wasted.

Competitive Behavior↗

PubMed1993

Effects of modelling and observer's ego involvement on warm-up decrement.

Warm-up decrement (WUD), a phenomenon associated with motor behaviour, is the temporary decrement that occurs when performance resumes after a period of inactivity. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which observing a model while concerned about one's own subsequent performance (e.g. a substitute about to enter the sport contest) influences WUD. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (1) observing an ego-involved model demonstrate the criterion skill, (2) observing a model while not ego-involved, (3) ego involvement without modelling and (4) resting (control). Performance outcome (accuracy) and arousal (cognitive and somatic) were assessed. The results of the study indicated that only the combined ego involvement plus modelling condition eliminated WUD. Positive rather than negative emotions and heart rate increased significantly for these subjects after rest. In contrast, the other conditions each exhibited WUD. Heart rate was significantly higher in the 'model and ego' and 'ego only' groups as opposed to 'modelling only' and rest. Implications for using cognitive strategies while observing competitors just prior to entering the contest on reducing WUD are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

The effects of competitive anxiety on memory span and rebound shooting tasks in basketball players.

Two theoretical models were used to investigate aspects of basketball performance: Eysenck's (1979, 1984) compensatory arousal model and Humphreys and Revelle's (1984) twin resources model. Cognitive and somatic anxiety were manipulated using a 'time to event' paradigm. The aspects of performance were a short-term memory task (letter span) and a low memory demand, motoric-sustained information transfer task (rebound shooting). Hypotheses based on the different models were formulated and subsequently tested using analysis of variance and polynomial regression analysis. The results indicated significant (P < 0.01) linear relationships with negative slopes between cognitive anxiety and letter span, and between somatic anxiety and letter span; while significant (P < 0.01) linear relationships with positive slopes were recorded between cognitive anxiety and rebound shooting, and between somatic anxiety and rebound shooting. The analysis of variance results were in agreement with a positive effect (P < 0.05) for cognitive anxiety upon rebound shooting, and a negative effect which approached significance (P < 0.07) for somatic anxiety upon letter span. The results were interpreted as offering partial support for Eysenck's (1979) theoretical model, although further examination of multidimensional anxiety effects via the two models is warranted.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Intensity and direction dimensions of competitive state anxiety and relationships with performance.

This study examined relationships between intensity and direction dimensions of competitive state anxiety, and also relationships with beam performance in a sample of female gymnasts. The 48 gymnasts, whose ages ranged from 14 to 16 years, competed in a beam competition and were divided, via the median split technique, into poor performance and good performance groups. All the subjects completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) 10 min prior to performance. This inventory included the original intensity scale plus a direction scale in which subjects rated the degree to which the experienced intensity of each symptom was either facilitative of debilitative to subsequent beam performance. Analyses of variance showed no significant group differences on any of the CSAI-2 sub-component intensity scores, or on somatic anxiety and self-confidence direction scores. However, the good performance group reported their cognitive anxiety intensity as being more facilitating and less debilitating to performance than the poor performance group. Stepwise multiple-regression analyses showed that the only significant predictor of beam performance was self-confidence intensity. These findings support the proposal that sports performers' directional perceptions of their anxiety symptoms may provide further understanding of the competitive state anxiety response, and also emphasize the importance of self-confidence in predicting performance.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Intensity and frequency dimensions of competitive state anxiety.

This study reports a preliminary investigation of intensity and frequency of symptoms of competitive state anxiety. Forty-nine track and field athletes (27 males, 22 females) responded to a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) on four occasions during the period leading up to an important competition: 2 days, 1 day, 2 h and within 30 min of competing. The questionnaire included the existing CSAI-2 (intensity) scale as well as a frequency scale for each of the 27 items of the CSAI-2. The intensity and frequency dimensions of each of the CSAI-2-sub-scales were then compared between the four conditions by means of two-way analyses of variance (gender x time-to-competition). In the case of cognitive anxiety, time-to-event effects were observed for intensity and frequency for both males and females. The intensity of the response was significantly greater at the final stage of testing than it was 2 days before competition, while the frequency of the response increased progressively throughout the experimental period. This dissociative patterning for the cognitive anxiety dimensions is discussed in the light of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predictions. For somatic anxiety, the time-to-event effects that emerged for intensity and frequency revealed that both values increased progressively as the time to compete neared, for both male and females. The results for self-confidence revealed no effects for intensity or frequency for either gender. The findings from structured follow-up interviews served to corroborate these quantitative findings by providing information that supported the conclusions drawn from the questionnaire data. In particular, the athletes reported that they experienced considerable increases in the frequency of intrusive anxiety cognitions. While these findings clearly need to be substantiated, they do provide evidence of the existence of an additional dimension of anxiety that may assist our understanding of this complex concept. The measurement of competitive state anxiety may benefit from this more detailed approach as opposed to the rather limited intensity-alone perspective.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Antecedents of state goals in age-group swimmers: an interactionist perspective.

A theoretical tenet of 'goal perspective' theory that has received little research attention has been the nature of the relationship between the person and the environment with respect to predicting task and ego involvement in sport. This study therefore integrated both dispositional and situational criteria in order to examine their relative ability to predict 'state' goals of task and ego involvement in a sample of age-group swimmers (n = 214). The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and several single-item assessments of goal orientation represented the dispositional measures, and these were completed away from the race environment. The situational antecedents of task and ego involvement were assessed by the 11-item Race Context Questionnaire (RCQ), which was administered to the swimmers within 1 h of their main event at their county championships. The RCQ also assessed the extent to which the performer had set task and ego goals for the upcoming race (i.e. 'state' goals). Factor analysis of the RCQ revealed four factors which cumulatively accounted for 65.3% of the variance: social/personal perceptions of ability; perceived state goal preference of significant others; race outcome value; and perceived readiness. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed separate main effects as well as significant interactions between the dispositional and situational predictors of the different goal types. Specifically, social perceptions and race-specific criteria were the major predictors of ego involvement, whereas the level of task orientation combined with the above situational factors seemed to exert greater influence in determining the intensity of task involvement in age-group swimmers. These findings alert researchers to the importance of applying an interactionist perspective to the examination of 'state' goals.

Adolescent↗