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PubMed1997

Color vision tests for early detection of antiepileptic drug toxicity.

A previous suggestion that antiepileptic drugs may induce color vision deficiencies prompted us to examine whether color vision deficiencies may occur at lower drug serum concentrations than those associated with symptoms of neurotoxicity. Eighty patients presenting with epilepsy received monotherapies of valproic acid, phenytoin, or carbamazepine; 18 patients did not receive antiepileptic drug therapy. Color vision was tested by the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test, spectral sensitivity, and the newly developed tritan screening plates. Patients treated with phenytoin or carbamazepine developed blue-yellow color vision deficiencies. In contrast, patients exposed to valproic acid or receiving no drug treatment showed normal color vision. There was a significant correlation (p < 0.0001) between signs of neurotoxicity induced by phenytoin or carbamazepine and blue-yellow color vision deficiencies. In contrast, we found no correlation between these signs of neurotoxicity and the drug serum concentrations (p = 0.0637). Color vision testing in epileptic patients treated with phenytoin or carbamazepine appears to be a sensitive method for early detection and monitoring of clinical neurotoxicity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1979

The ability of color defectives to judge signal lights at sea.

Measures were made of the ability of color-defective men to judge correctly the colors of navigation lights (red, green, or white) presented to them at night under realistic sea conditions. Eighty-one color-defective men were employed; they were categorized as to type and degree of defect using a battery of five color-vision tests. While the average performance of the color-defective men was considerably poorer than that of 24 color normals, there were large individual differences within each category of defect. Attempts to account for these differences in performance by variations in acuity, intelligence, and motivation failed. The extent to which the data can be accounted for by modern color-vision theory is discussed.

Color Vision Defects↗

PubMed1993

Color matching at high illuminances: photopigment optical density and pupil entry.

Changes in the effective optical density of the cones are sufficient to explain changes in color matches with retinal illuminance and pupil entry. We performed three experiments. In the first experiment, six observers made color matches under both bleached and unbleached conditions to a series of six standard wavelengths. The effects of bleaching could be modeled by a decrease in optical density of the L and M cone photopigments. Slight spectral shifts in the peak wavelengths of the photopigments were required for different observers. In the second experiment we varied retinal illuminance of the color-matching field from 2.4 to 5.4 log Td for a series of long-wavelength primaries. The shape of the color match versus the intensity function was unchanged by the wavelength composition of the matching field. In the third experiment we measured the change in color match with retinal illuminance for different pupil entry positions. At low luminances there was a marked dependence of the color match on pupil entry positions. At high illuminance there was only a small dependence. The half-bleach illuminance values varied as expected from the Stiles-Crawford I effect. We conclude that for wavelengths > 540 nm, changes in color matches with bleaching and pupil entry can be explained by changes in the effective optical density of the cones.

Adult↗

PubMed1986

Reconstruction of equidistant color space from responses of visual neurones of macaques.

We demonstrate that a combination of responses of various types of spectrally opponent sustained cells of the macaque lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) may be related to equidistant color space. Response curves of such cells to stimuli of different luminance ratios and wavelengths are similar to the first stage opponent coordinate functions of the new SVF color-difference formula [T. Seim and A. Valberg, Color Res. Appl. 11, 11 (1986)]. Mathematical simulation of the responses of these cells to a variety of color stimuli is possible through computation of cone excitations and subsequent sums and differences of cone signals. When the response functions thus obtained for cells are used to replace the corresponding coordinates of the SVF diagram, the distributions of equiluminous stimuli with the same sensory differences from an achromatic stimulus approximate ellipses about the white point, and loci of constant hue approximate straight lines. Improved uniformity may be obtained by linear combinations of these cells' outputs or by including more cell types with best responsiveness to other directions of color space. This indicates possible roles of LGN cell types for color scaling in primates, in that color scaling observed psychophysically is an implicit property of these cells' responses.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Assessing dentin color changes from nightguard vital bleaching.

BACKGROUND: At-home bleaching with 10 percent carbamide peroxide in a custom-fitted tray has been reported to change the color of dentin. The purpose of this study was to validate the color change of dentin and to determine whether the color change was uniform or occurred from the outside (the dentinoenamel junction) to the inside (the pulpal wall). METHODS: The authors sectioned 10 extracted human teeth incisogingivally through the midfacial long axis, and sealed their cut surface against glass microscope slides. Identifying marks were placed on the glass over the tooth sections to serve as a color control and in the dentinal areas closest to the dentinoenamel junction and the pulpal wall. Teeth were bleached for 10 days with 10 percent carbamide peroxide. Photographs were taken from the glass-covered side of the teeth, digitized and converted to gray-scale levels (consisting of 256 shades of gray ranging from black to white). Marked areas were measured with a National Institutes of Health Image software program and analyzed statistically for changes in lightness between the control marks and the inner and outer dentinal marks over time. RESULTS: Paired t-tests and analysis of variance indicated a significant increase in lightness (P = .01) for the inner and outer dentinal areas during bleaching compared with the control areas. No significant differences were found in the rate of change for the inner and outer dentinal areas (P = .89). CONCLUSIONS: The increase in lightness confirms that a significant color change occurred in the dentin during bleaching with 10 percent carbamide peroxide. This change occurred throughout the dentin at a uniform rate, rather than from the outside inward. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: The results of this study show that at-home bleaching with 10 percent carbamide peroxide can change the color of dentin, which is important to treat intrinsic stains from tetracycline treatment, trauma and aging or inherited discolorations. The bleaching material easily penetrates the tooth to change the dentin color at the same rate throughout, indicating that the type of stain may be the important factor in determining bleaching success.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2003

Eye color as an indicator of social rank in the fish Nile tilapia.

We investigated the association of eye color with the dominant-subordinate relationship in the fish Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Eye color pattern was also examined in relation to the intensity of attacks. We paired 20 size-matched fish (intruder: 73.69 11.49 g; resident: 75.42 8.83 g) and evaluated eye color and fights. These fish were isolated in individual aquaria for 10 days and then their eye color was measured 5 min before pairing (basal values). Twenty minutes after pairing, eye color and fights were quantified for 10 min. Clear establishment of social hierarchy was observed in 7 of 10 pairs of fish. Number of attacks ranged from 1 to 168 among pairs. The quartile was calculated for these data and the pairs were then divided into two classes: low-attack (1 to 111 attacks - 2 lower quartiles) or high-attack (112 to 168 attacks - 2 higher quartiles). Dominance decreased the eye-darkening patterns of the fish after pairing, while subordinance increased darkening compared to dominance. Subordinate fish in low-attack confrontations presented a darker eye compared to dominant fish and to the basal condition. We also observed a paler eye pattern in dominants that shared low-attack interactions after pairing compared to the subordinates and within the group. However, we found no differences in the darkening pattern between dominants and subordinates from the high-attack groups. We conclude that eye color is associated with social rank in this species. Moreover, the association between eye color and social rank in the low-attack pairs may function to reduce aggression.

Aggression↗

PubMed2002

A quantitative analysis of geographic color variation in two Geotrupes dung beetles.

We conducted a quantitative analysis of geographic color variation in two species of dung beetles: Geotrupes auratus and G. laevistriatus. The reflectance of the dorsal surfaces was measured from 300 to 700 nm using a spectrophotometer. The reflectance curves for both beetles were bimodal; there were two distinct peaks, namely, the a peak, between 400 and 700 nm, and the beta peak at around 300 nm. A stepwise discriminant analysis indicated that geographic color variation in Geotrupes beetles was primarily characterized by a shift of the a peak. Using beetles from three locations, we compared the wavelength (nm) of the a peak (lambdamax(alpha)) and its reflectance intensity (R(a)) to investigate sex and population differences. Intraspecific geographic variation in coloration was effectively detected by discriminant analysis of spectral reflectance curves. Our results showed that G. auratus and G. laevistriatus had similar coloration within each sampling location. Our study also revealed hidden sex differences in R(a); R(a) of males were significantly higher than those of females in both species. Since the dorsal surface of the beetles shows remarkable color variation, and coloration can be assessed objectively using reflectance spectra, Geotrupes beetles may be good model organisms to investigate geographic color variation.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Effects of color temperature of illumination on physiological functions.

This article presents our recent studies on the effects of color temperature on the taste sense and the influence of color temperature on bright light exposure during night rest period. Ten male Japanese and ten male Chinese were exposed to four illumination conditions (200, 1500 lx x 3000, 7500 K). Their taste threshold of four common tastes and amount of saliva were measured. It was found in both Japanese and Chinese subjects that sensitivities to sweet and bitter taste were decreased under the lower illuminance condition. Under the lower color temperature condition, sensitivity to bitter taste in Japanese and sweet taste in Chinese were decreased. Secretion of saliva increased under the lower illuminance condition in both Japanese and Chinese. Only in Chinese subjects, secretion of saliva increased under the lower color temperature condition. In a separate experiment, six male Japanese students were subjected to bright light exposure during a night rest period. They performed a mental task from 23:00 h till 02:00 h, and took a rest from 00:00 h to 01:00 h. During the rest period they were exposed to bright light (3000 lx) of three different color temperatures: 3000 K, 5000 K, and 7000 K. After exposure to bright light of 3000 K but not at other color temperatures, the EEG alpha1 band ratio and the beta band ratio at 02:00 h were higher and lower, respectively, than that at 01:00 h. These findings indicated that lower color temperature bright light exposure during a night rest break led to a reduction of subjects' arousal level during the subsequent work. Herein, we discuss these results from the viewpoint of physiological anthropology.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Color vision deficits and Rorschach performance in aged persons.

Forty-two community residing older adults (M age = 69.28) (32 color normal, 10 color deficient) were administered the Rorschach and measures of both verbal and nonverbal intelligence in order to explore the effect of color vision deficiencies on affective responsivity. Among the sample of older persons screened for both visual and auditory acuity, when controls for intelligence and numbers of responses were made, greater affective constriction was found in the protocols of color vision deficient persons, relative to color normal individuals. These data suggest that Rorschach indicators of affective constriction may be biased in the case of individuals who have experienced color vision decrements. Consequently, first screening for color vision decrements when assessing older persons' personality dynamics may be desirable.

Aged↗

PubMed1996

Characterization of adnexal masses: combination of color Doppler and conventional sonography compared with spectral Doppler analysis alone and conventional sonography alone.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the importance of color Doppler combined with conventional sonography in characterizing adnexal masses and to compare the results with those of spectral Doppler analysis alone and conventional sonography alone. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One hundred and fifteen women with 132 adnexal masses (98 benign, three borderline, and 31 malignant) were prospectively studied with conventional and Doppler sonography (transabdominal in all patients and transvaginal in 111). Three methods differentiated benign from borderline and malignant masses. In the first, conventional sonography was used. In the second, conventional sonography was combined with color Doppler. In this method, the presence of color flow in an echogenic portion classified as indeterminate or malignant by conventional sonography indicated malignancy; the absence of color flow in an echogenic portion classified as indeterminant or malignant at conventional sonography indicated benignancy; the presence or absence of color flow in a regular wall or septum indicated benignancy. The third method used spectral Doppler analysis. Malignancy was indicated by a resistive index (RI) less than or equal to 0.4, a pulsatility index (PI) less than or equal to 1, or a peak systolic velocity (PSV) greater than or equal to 15 cm/sec. RESULTS: Using conventional sonography alone, accuracy was 83%, sensitivity was 88%, and specificity was 82%. Using conventional sonography and color Doppler, accuracy was 95%, sensitivity was 88%, and specificity was 97%. Using spectral Doppler analysis and an RI less than or equal to 0.4, accuracy was 77%, sensitivity was 18%, and specificity was 98%. For a PI less than or equal to 1, accuracy was 68%, sensitivity was 71%, and specificity was 67%. For a PSV greater than or equal to 15 cm/sec, accuracy was 72%, sensitivity was 47%, and and specificity was 81%. CONCLUSION: Adding color Doppler to conventional sonography produced a specificity and positive predictive value higher than those of conventional sonography alone. Specificity increased from 82% to 97% (p < .001), and positive predictive value increased from 63% to 91%. RI, PI, and PSV were of limited value.

Adnexal Diseases↗

PubMed1997

Power versus color Doppler sonography of the normal cystic artery: implications for patients with acute cholecystitis.

OBJECTIVE: The purposes of this investigation were to compare prospectively the pattern and extent of cystic artery flow revealed by power Doppler sonography and color Doppler sonography in patients with normal gallbladders and to analyze the potential implications of these findings for power Doppler sonography in diagnosing acute cholecystitis. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The cystic arteries of 142 patients (79 women and 63 men) with normal gallbladders were imaged with both power Doppler sonography and color Doppler sonography using 5-MHz transducers and settings optimized to reveal low-volume flow. The presence or absence of cystic artery flow and the anatomic extent of its visualization were recorded for each patient. RESULTS: Power Doppler sonography revealed flow in 73% of patients with normal gallbladders compared with 53% revealed by color Doppler sonography. Cystic artery flow within the distal fundal quartile was revealed by power Doppler sonography in 20% of patients and flow spanning greater than 50% of the anterior gallbladder wall was revealed by power Doppler sonography in 17% of patients. These findings differed from those of color Doppler sonography at a highly significant level (p < .0001, chi-square test). CONCLUSIONS: Power Doppler sonography is significantly more sensitive than color Doppler sonography for revealing cystic artery flow in patients with normal gallbladders. The flow patterns in patients with normal gallbladders obtained with power Doppler sonography overlap flow patterns previously reported as fairly specific criteria for diagnosing acute cholecystitis using color Doppler sonography, namely, flow within the distal fundal quartile and flow spanning greater than 50% of the anterior gallbladder wall. Accordingly, these color Doppler sonography criteria are not applicable to the diagnosis of acute cholecystitis with power Doppler sonography. Different power Doppler sonography criteria are necessary for the diagnosis of acute cholecystitis.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed1998

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts: improved evaluation with echo-enhanced color Doppler sonography, power Doppler sonography, and spectral duplex sonography.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the feasibility of contrast-enhanced color Doppler, power Doppler, and spectral duplex sonography for visualization and quantification of flow through transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (TIPS) in patients in whom the baseline sonographic evaluation was unsatisfactory. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Thirty-three patients underwent color Doppler, power Doppler, and spectral duplex sonography after TIPS insertion or before TIPS revision (mean time interval +/- SD, 1 +/- 1 day). All sonograms were obtained before and after patients received echo-enhancing contrast material. Sonography was evaluated with regard to presence or absence of flow in the mid portion, portal segment, and hepatic segment of the shunt. The maximal peak velocity was measured in the mid portion of the shunt. For identifying and quantifying stenoses, the percentage of luminal diameter reduction was calculated at the tightest part of the shunt. Shunt angiography and measurements of portosystemic pressure gradients were independently evaluated and compared with the sonographic findings. RESULTS: Flow visualization on unenhanced color Doppler sonography was significantly improved through the use of power Doppler sonography and contrast-enhanced color Doppler and power Doppler sonography (p < .01). Between contrast-enhanced power Doppler and contrast-enhanced color Doppler sonography, a significant difference was found in the portal and hepatic segments (p < .05). All shunt stenoses (n = 8) and occlusions (n = 3) were revealed by power Doppler sonography, whereas color Doppler sonography failed to reveal six of eight stenoses. Compared with unenhanced sonography, the quality of spectral duplex sonography was improved in eight patients after contrast enhancement (p < .05). Maximal peak velocity ranged from 54 to 252 cm/sec (mean +/- SD, 132.7 +/- 52.1 cm/sec) in normal shunts and from 24.5 to 70.0 cm/sec (mean +/- SD, 45.0 +/- 18.9 cm/sec) in stenosed shunts. No correlation was found between maximal peak velocity and portosystemic pressure gradients (r = .28). CONCLUSION: Unenhanced power Doppler and contrast-enhanced color and power Doppler sonography can be helpful in the assessment of TIPS status in patients who previously underwent unsatisfactory sonography. These techniques may allow anatomic evaluation and quantification of shunt stenosis in most patients. Contrast enhancement may also considerably improve the quality of spectral duplex sonography.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Prostatic cancer: role of color Doppler imaging in transrectal sonography.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the roles of transrectal color Doppler and gray-scale sonography in revealing prostatic cancer, using biopsy as the reference standard. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Two hundred fifty-six patients referred for urologic studies underwent transrectal sonography using gray-scale and color Doppler scanning. All abnormal areas shown on gray-scale or color Doppler sonography or both were targeted and biopsies were performed. The patients also underwent random sextant biopsies. All biopsies were individually correlated with histopathologic findings and all results were analyzed. RESULTS: Cancer was found on biopsy in 100 patients (39%), and equivocal sonographic results or prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia was found in 22 other patients (9%). In 16 of the patients in whom cancer was detected, the tumors were correctly revealed only with color Doppler sonography. These 16 patients had a mean Gleason score of 6.4 (range, 5-8). Biopsy findings in these 16 patients showed eight patients with extensive lesions, three with moderate lesions, and five with minimal lesions. However, in nine other patients with cancer (9% of cancers detected), both gray-scale and color Doppler sonography failed to reveal lesions that were found on sextant biopsy. An analysis showed that, although highly sensitive, color Doppler sonography was somewhat less specific than gray-scale sonography. CONCLUSION: Color Doppler sonography should become a routine part of transrectal sonography of the prostate gland to improve detection and targeting of lesions. The practice of performing random sextant biopsies should also continue.

Biopsy↗

PubMed1998

Characterization of urinary calculi: in vitro study of "twinkling artifact" revealed by color-flow sonography.

OBJECTIVE: The "twinkling artifact" is a color-flow sonographic artifact described behind calcifications and presenting as a random color encoding in the region where shadowing would be expected on gray-scale images. Our purpose was to study the relationship between this twinkling artifact seen behind urinary stones on color-flow sonography and the morphology or biochemical composition of these urinary stones. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty-seven urinary stones were studied in vitro with color-flow sonography. Transmit frequency, color gain, velocity range, color filters, focal depth, and depth of field were changed during scanning. The twinkling artifact was graded 0 when absent, 1 when present but occupying a portion of acoustic shadowing, and 2 when occupying the entire acoustic shadowing. Stones were studied under a binocular magnifying glass to characterize the surface, and infrared spectrophotometry was used to determine the chemical composition. RESULTS: Calculi of calcium oxalate dihydrate and calcium phosphate always produced a grade 1 or grade 2 twinkling artifact. Absence of artifact was noted only for calcium oxalate monohydrate and urate stones. In 100% of grade 0 calcium oxalate stones, the monohydrate compound was predominant (>93%). In 100% of grade 2 calcium oxalate stones, the dihydrate compound was predominant (>75%). For calcium oxalate stones, the surface pattern was correlated with their composition. Sensitivity and specificity for absence of artifact, as indicative of calcium oxalate monohydrate, were 60% and 83%, respectively, for all stones and 56% and 100%, respectively, only for radiopaque stones. CONCLUSION: An in vitro relationship exists between the twinkling artifact and the morphology of urinary stones. Color-flow sonography could play a role in detecting dense calcium oxalate monohydrate calculi, which in turn may help predict fragmentability.

Artifacts↗

PubMed1999

Diagnosis of the nutcracker syndrome with color Doppler sonography: correlation with flow patterns on retrograde left renal venography.

OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to confirm flow patterns of the left renal vein and assess the usefulness of color Doppler sonography in the diagnosis of the renal vein entrapment, or nutcracker, syndrome. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Forty-four patients with hematuria of unknown origin underwent color Doppler sonography, renal arteriography, retrograde left renal venography, and renocaval pressure measurement. The flow patterns were classified according to the presence or absence of distended left renal veins on sonograms and collateral veins on retrograde venograms. The sensitivity and specificity of color Doppler sonography for revealing the nutcracker syndrome were assessed by analyzing pressure gradients in combination with the venograms, which were used as the gold standard. RESULTS: Twenty-one nondistended left renal veins were seen, including 19 (43%) without collateral veins or hypertension and two (5%) with collateral veins but without hypertension (long-term nutcracker syndrome). The 23 distended left renal veins included seven without collateral veins or hypertension and one with hypertension but without collateral veins (early nutcracker syndrome). The remaining 15 distended left renal veins with collateral veins included 11 (25%) with borderline hypertension (partially compensatory status of the syndrome) and four (9%) with hypertension (noncompensatory status of the syndrome). The sensitivity and specificity of color Doppler sonography for revealing the nutcracker syndrome were 78% and 100%, respectively, when color flow in collateral veins was included in the diagnostic criteria. CONCLUSION: The nutcracker syndrome can exist in either nondistended or distended left renal veins. However, normal flow also can exist in distended left renal veins. The ability of color Doppler sonography to reveal color flow in collateral veins is useful for the noninvasive diagnosis of the nutcracker syndrome.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Evaluation of abdominal aortic aneurysm after endoluminal treatment: comparison of color Doppler sonography with biphasic helical CT.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to compare color Doppler sonography with biphasic helical CT in the evaluation of abdominal aortic aneurysms after endovascular repair. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty-five patients prospectively underwent both color Doppler sonography and helical CT within 7 days after treatment by endovascular stent-graft. Aneurysmal thrombosis, the patency of the grafts, and the presence of a leak were evaluated in all patients. When a perigraft leak was observed, an attempt was made to identify its origin and outflow vessels. Helical CT was considered the gold standard technique. RESULTS: Helical CT revealed aneurysmal thrombosis in 33 patients and a perigraft leak in 22 patients. In five patients, helical CT detected a small perigraft leak not shown by color Doppler sonography. In three patients with suboptimal examinations, color Doppler sonography revealed a suspected perigraft leak that was not confirmed by helical CT. In these eight patients, the perigraft leak was sealed or no longer observed during follow-up. Compared with enhanced helical CT, the sensitivity and specificity of color Doppler sonography for the diagnosis of a perigraft leak were 77% and 90%, respectively. In seven other patients, helical CT was superior to color Doppler sonography in detecting the origin of the perigraft leak and the outflow vessels. Two iliac artery dissections and one distal migration of the prosthesis were revealed only by helical CT. CONCLUSION: Although color Doppler sonography may detect substantial perigraft leaks, helical CT is superior for detecting the origin of the perigraft leak, the outflow vessels, and the detection of complications related to the procedure.

Aged↗

PubMed2005

Color Doppler ultrasound as an objective assessment tool for chemotherapeutic response in advanced breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: In our part of the world, the majority of the patients with breast cancer present with locally advanced disease and require neo-adjuvant chemotherapy as the primary treatment modality. It is essential to monitor the response to chemotherapy in these patients. Clinical examination as the sole criterion of response assessment is entirely subjective and fallacious. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT) are expensive. The role of Doppler ultrasonography as an imaging modality for this purpose is therefore being evaluated. METHODS: A prospective study was undertaken of 25 cases of locally advanced breast carcinoma (LABC) and Color Doppler sonography was used for the sequential assessment of chemotherapeutic response. The response assessed on the basis of clinical examination and Color Doppler was compared with the histological response. The parameters assessed on color Doppler were a change in the number of flow signals, maximum flow velocity (Vmax), pulsatility index (PI) and resistivity index (RI). Responses were analysed statistically using the Pearson correlation coefficient and Kappa statistics (kappa). The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive & negative predictive values for predicting complete histological response were calculated. RESULTS: Color Doppler showed a sensitivity of 88.88 % for predicting complete histological response. The negative predictive value of color Doppler was 92.3 %. A significant correlation was obtained between color Doppler and histopathological response. CONCLUSIONS: Color Doppler was found to be an objective and effective tool or modality compared with clinical evaluation in sequential response assessment, especially for predicting complete histological response.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Color priming affects Stroop interference.

The effect of prior word and/or color activation on subsequent color naming was examined in a discrete-trials Stroop task. Both word and color primes increased color-word interference, and the magnitude of the priming effect increased as the number of priming dimensions increased. The maximal interference usually produced by incongruent Stroop stimuli was reduced when such stimuli were preceded by primes which activated both word and color dimensions. The results were discussed in terms of models which attribute color-word interference to the relative speed of word reading and color naming.

Adult↗