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Outbreak of Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 in a child day care facility.

In December 1998, an outbreak of Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) O157 in a crèche affected ten out of 45 children and one out of five staff members. Eight cases were symptomatic and three were asymptomatic. There were two asymptomatic adult family contacts of child cases. All specimens were identified as VTEC O157:H7, phage type 32. None of the cases were seriously ill and none developed haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS). One child continued to excrete the organism for 14 weeks. The origin of the outbreak was not found but epidemiological investigation was suggestive of person-to-person spread. All children and staff were screened and excluded from the crèche until microbiological clearance was obtained. An inspection of the crèche revealed overcrowding and inadequacies in cleaning and in the food preparation facilities. These problems were remedied before children were re-admitted to the crèche. This outbreak demonstrates the ease with which VTEC O157 can be transmitted between small children. Two specific features of this outbreak were notable: (1) the mild self-limiting nature of the illness and (2) the prolonged shedding of the bacterium by one child.

Adult↗

A multi-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii outbreak in a general intensive care unit.

In an Intensive Care Unit, three patients were found infected and two colonized with multiresistant Acinetobacter baumannii within a period of one week. To identify the outbreak source, two surveillance studies were performed concerning patients and the environment. Genotyping of isolates was performed by random amplification of polymorphic DNA analysis (RAPD). Environmental sampling failed to yield A. baumannii, with the exception of a single sample from a trunking. RAPD-fingerprinting yielded identical patterns for all patient isolates including the trunking isolate, thus confirming the suspected cluster. Since the strain from the trunking had a susceptibility pattern and a RAPD pattern identical to that of the strains isolated from the patients, we believe that this was the likely source of the outbreak. In conclusion, A. baumannii outbreaks may be quickly controlled by appropriate action of the hospital infection staff. RAPD-fingerprinting may provide a useful and rapid identification technique for the epidemiological investigation of a hospital outbreak.

Acinetobacter Infections↗

Preparation for an outbreak of smallpox in Israel.

Because of its high case-fatality rate, its very high transmission potential, and the worldwide shortage of effective vaccine, smallpox tops international lists of over a dozen possible bioterror and biologic warfare agents. In a scenario involving aerosol variola virus release, tens to hundreds of first-generation cases would ensue, as would hundreds to thousands of subsequent cases resulting from person-to-person transmission. A smallpox outbreak in Israel must not be regarded as a doomsday event: the methods of smallpox outbreak control are known and will be implemented. The rapidity with which organized outbreak control measures are competently executed will determine how many generations of cases occur before the outbreak is brought under control. Planning, vaccine stockpiling, laboratory expansion, professional training and public education, all carried out well in advance of an epidemic, will minimize the number of casualties. The reinstitution of routine smallpox vaccination in Israel, as in other countries, must be given serious consideration, since it has the potential for eliminating the threat of smallpox as a bioterror agent.

Bioterrorism↗

Geographically separate outbreaks of shigellosis in Auckland, New Zealand, linked by molecular subtyping to cases returning from Samoa.

AIM: To investigate simultaneous outbreaks of Shigella sonnei gastroenteritis occurring in February 2001 at a health camp for socially deprived children and an elderly care facility. METHODS: Those with symptoms were interviewed using a standardised questionnaire. Cases were defined as having at least three loose stools over a 24 hour period and stool samples requested. A case-control study investigating routes of transmission was performed at the health camp. Environmental investigations of food safety and hygiene were conducted at each facility. RESULTS: At the camp, 15 (37%) students and 15 (28%) staff met case criteria. Contact with human faeces (OR 4.0; 95% confidence interval 1.0-16.3; p = 0.05) and, for staff, eating camp food (OR 6.9; 1.0-5.0; p = 0.06) were shown to be independent risk factors for illness. At the elderly care facility, four (19%) residents and four (25%) staff met case criteria. Molecular subtyping confirmed that the outbreaks were related to each other and to other cases in travellers returning from Samoa to Auckland and other New Zealand cities over a four month period. CONCLUSION: Molecular subtyping is of considerable use in communicable disease investigation, providing strong evidence for links between outbreaks. With expanded technological capability, New Zealand could perform routine molecular subtyping of selected organisms to improve the detection and the investigation of regional and inter-regional outbreaks of infection.

Adolescent↗

[Outbreak of giardiasis at a preschool children establishment in the town of Perm'].

In November 2000, an outbreak of Giardiasis intestinalis with aqueous transmission was recorded in one of the microdistricts of Perm. Thirty six children aged 1-7 years fell ill, 2 parasitic carriers were identified among the staff. The diagnosis was parasitologically verified in all children with clinical manifestations. Enzyme immunoassay was positive in 87.5% of the patients with the parasitologically verified diagnosis. The aqueous nature of the outbreak was confirmed by the detection of Lamblia cysts in the samples of water from the transfer network of the microdistrict in November 2000 and by the higher incidence of giardiasis among the microdistrict's residents since April 2000. Macmiror in age-specific doses was used to treat patients. The therapeutical efficiency of one course was 100%. If outbreaks of intestinal infections of unknown etiology occur, a parasitological survey should be made among patients and those who have contacted with them. Prolonged diarrhea was one of the major symptoms of giardiasis during an outbreak of this intestinal infection.

Animals↗

An outbreak of Bacillus cereus implicating a part-time banquet caterer.

CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVES: In the aftermath of a party, 70% (25 of 36) of attendees had gastroenteritis. The objectives of this study were to identify a risk factor associated with the food during the banquet and to identify measures of control for avoiding this kind of outbreak in the future. METHOD: A retrospective cohort study was used. We tried to reach by telephone all guests who had attended this banquet. A standardized questionnaire was used to provide information about identification of a risk factor, especially in relation to food. RESULTS: The cohort study has shown that potato salad served at the party was significantly associated with the disease. The mayonnaise used to prepare the salad was analyzed and Bacillus cereus was isolated (10(3) bacteria per gram). DISCUSSION: Bacillus microorganisms are usually found in decaying organic matter, dust, soil, vegetables and water. The bacteria has a remarkable ability to survive strong environmental stresses. There are strains of B. cereus that can cause food poisoning episodes with infective doses as low as 10(3) to 10(4) bacteria per gram. B. cereus is an infrequently reported cause of foodborne illnesses in Quebec and in North America but this may be due to underreporting of episodes. In this outbreak, bacterial multiplication was facilitated at several points in the interval between the preparation of the meal and the consumption of the banquet by the guests. Because the spores are ubiquitous and resistant to inactivation with most food grade disinfectants, temperature control should be the main focus of B. cereus outbreak prevention. CONCLUSION: The meal was prepared by a restaurateur who was inexperienced in catering services and temperature control in particular when food is served outside the restaurant. This outbreak underscores the importance of maintaining meticulous hygienic procedures in food processing. Restaurateurs who offer catering services should be familiar with the constraints that are specific to this sector of the food industry.

Bacillus cereus↗

Serologic follow-up of a repopulated swine herd after an outbreak of proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy.

Lawsonia intracellularis is an obligate intracellular organism that causes porcine proliferative enteropathy, a widespread infectious disease. Very little is known about the immune response and the epidemiologic features of the disease in the field. The aims of this study were to evaluate the duration and titers of antibody specific for L. intracellularis in gilts after an outbreak of proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy (PHE), to evaluate maternal antibodies in piglets, and to evaluate seroconversion and fecal shedding in growing-finishing pigs. Thirty-six gilts in a herd that had recently experienced an outbreak of PHE, including 13 that had recovered, were bled 3 wk after the beginning of the outbreak and then every 3 wk until they became seronegative in 2 consecutive tests. Fourteen piglets from 5 gilts seropositive at farrowing and 5 piglets from 2 sows that remained seronegative were bled once or twice at the farrowing house and then every 3 wk until they reached market age. Fecal samples from these pigs were tested by polymerase chain reaction at 7 wk of age and then on the days of blood collection. After the PHE outbreak, the gilts had high serum antibody levels; the levels decreased over time, but antibody was still detectable for up to 3 mo in some animals. Four piglets from sows that were seropositive at farrowing had detectable passive antibodies up to 5 wk of age. Some nursery pigs started shedding L. intracellularis around 7 wk of age; peak shedding was observed between 13 and 16 wk. Antibody was not detected until 16 wk of age and was more often detected between 19 and 22 wk.

Animals↗

Managing a large outbreak of cryptosporidiosis: how to investigate and when to decide to lift a 'boil water' notice.

The largest outbreak of cryptosporidiosis reported in the United Kingdom, involving 575 confirmed cases (of which 474 met an agreed case definition), occurred in the county of Devon during August and September of 1995. The descriptive epidemiology supports the hypothesis that the outbreak was associated with the consumption of cold tap water in the area served by a particular water treatment works. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in treated water samples at the time of the outbreak. Although the epidemiological analysis provided strong circumstantial evidence of a waterborne outbreak, the data were not recorded in a manner that made them admissible in criminal proceedings taken by the Drinking Water Inspectorate against the water company involved. The need to carry out an analytical study in conjunction with the identification and characterisation of the pathogen in the drinking water and the practicalities of agreeing criteria for lifting a 'boil water' notice are discussed.

Adolescent↗

Rapid response and strict control measures can contain a hospital outbreak of Norwalk-like virus.

Norwalk-like viruses (NLVs) are a major cause of sporadic gastroenteritis in the community and of large outbreaks of gastroenteritis in hospitals and other institutions. In January 2001, 38 staff and 20 patients on an acute elderly care ward became ill in an outbreak of gastrointestinal infection. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) the causative agent was identified as NLV. No link was found between particular foods eaten and illness. At various times in the course of the outbreak a number of wards were implicated, but in hindsight the outbreak was confined to one ward. A prompt and rigorous response was successful in containing the spread of NLV infection to just one ward and stopping it in a few days.

Caliciviridae Infections↗

Influenza outbreak--Madagascar, July-August 2002.

In mid-July 2002, Madagascar health authorities were notified of a substantial number of deaths attributed to acute respiratory illness (ARI) in the village of Sahafata (population: 2,160), located in the rural highlands of Fianarantsoa Province, southeastern Madagascar (Figure 1). This region is approximately 450 km (280 miles) south of the capital Antananarivo. The Madagascar Ministry of Health (MOH) and the Institut Pasteur, Madagascar (IPM) initiated an investigation, which found an attack rate of 70% for ARI, with 27 deaths in Sahafata. Pharyngeal swab specimens were collected from ill persons for viral culture. Of the four influenza A viruses that were isolated at IPM, two were identified as type A (H3N2) viruses. In late July, health authorities investigated a similar outbreak in Ikongo District, Fianarantsoa Province. In August, MOH requested assistance from the World Health Organization (WHO) and CDC in investigating the outbreak. In response, an international team of experts from CDC; Institut de Veille Sanitaire, France; Institut Pasteur, France; and WHO was mobilized from the Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network; the team arrived in Madagascar on August 14. This report summarizes the preliminary epidemiologic and virologic findings, which suggest that the outbreak was attributable to influenza A (H3N2) viruses. Further surveillance and research about the epidemiology of influenza in Madagascar is planned.

Disease Outbreaks↗

Multistate outbreaks of Salmonella serotype Poona infections associated with eating cantaloupe from Mexico--United States and Canada, 2000-2002.

Three multistate outbreaks of Salmonella serotype Poona infections associated with eating cantaloupe imported from Mexico occurred in the spring of consecutive years during 2000-2002. In each outbreak, the isolates had indistinguishable pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns; the PFGE patterns observed in the 2000 and 2002 outbreaks were indistinguishable, but the pattern from 2001 was unique among them. Outbreaks were identified first by the California Department of Health Services (2000 and 2001) and the Washington State Department of Health (2002) and involved residents of 12 states and Canada. This report describes the investigations, which led ultimately to an import alert on cantaloupes from Mexico. To limit the potential for cantaloupe contamination, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) continues to work with the Mexican government on a food-safety program for the production, packing, and shipping of fresh cantaloupes.

Adolescent↗

Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with noroviruses on cruise ships--United States, 2002.

During January 1-December 2, 2002, CDC's Vessel Sanitation Program (VSP), which conducts surveillance for acute gastroenteritis (AGE) on cruise ships with foreign itineraries sailing into U.S. ports received reports of 21 outbreaks of AGE on 17 cruise ships. Of the 21 outbreaks, nine were confirmed by laboratory analysis of stool specimens from affected persons to be associated with noroviruses, three were attributable to bacterial agents, and nine were of unknown etiology. Seven outbreaks were reported in 2001, and of these, four were confirmed to be associated with norovirus (CDC, unpublished data, 2002). This report describes five of the norovirus outbreaks that occurred during July 1-December 2, 2002, on cruise ships.

Acute Disease↗

[An outbreak of epidemic louse-borne typhus in Tokyo 1914: a study on the prevention of epidemics].

In 1914, the third year of the Taisho era, a period of democracy and prosperity of Japan, Tokyo was attached by an outbreak of epidemic louse-borne typhus. The number of patients was 4,119 and number of deaths was 778 (mortality rate of 18.9%) in Tokyo and 7,309 patients had been suffering from typhus fever that year in Japan. Many possible causes of the outbreak were suspected by the Health Authority of the Home Office, but these were not confirmed. One of the most likely reasons is the poor and congested living conditions of seasonal construction workers. Laborers had moved from the northwest region of Japan where typhus fever had developed occasionally in those days. Some of the laborers probably brought pathogenic germs with lice. The main preventive method for epidemic louse-borne typhus was isolation of patients and disinfecting of the areas. Kitasato Shibasaburou proposed the improvement of residential conditions of workers to prevent the prevalence of disease, but the proposal was not accepted because of financial reasons of the government. Recurrence of the outbreak did not occur in the following years. However, a huge outbreak of typhus fever with 32,366 patients and 3,351 deaths, was documented in 1946, amidst the disordered conditions of Japan after World War II.

Communicable Disease Control↗

[A suspected case of mass outbreak of tuberculosis infection in a small company separated into two floors].

The number of tuberculosis outbreak among adult groups has increased. In some of them, it is difficult to identify the route of infection and sometimes many people are involved in the outbreak. We experienced a suspected case of mass outbreak in a small company separated into 2 floors. The first patient, who lived in another city, was diagnosed as pulmonary tuberculosis in April with bilateral extensive cavitary lesions complicated with pleurisy on chest X-ray, and his sputum smear was Gaffky No. 8 and culture (+) (resistant to isoniazid). We conducted tuberculin skin test (TST) for those under-30 year-old. In TST, 4 persons showed strong positive reaction. After consulting with tuberculosis specialists, three were diagnosed as newly infected with tuberculosis and one as hilar lymph node tuberculosis. So we added 25 staffs under 60s for TST and found that another 13 people were suspected to be infected with tuberculosis. From the initial information, the index cast was said to work only in the 2nd floor, so the staffs in 7th floor were excluded from the survey. Through the interview with staffs by a public health nurse and an inspection of the work place with sanitary inspectors, it was concluded to expand the survey to the staffs working in the 7th floor, and another newly infected persons were found. Staffs in a small company do not belong to "danger group", but the importance of investigations by public health officials was suggested in the case of suspected outbreak.

Adult↗

Point source outbreaks of Campylobacter jejuni infection--are they more common than we think and what might cause them?

Despite being the commonest bacterial cause of infectious intestinal disease (IID) in England and Wales, outbreaks of campylobacter infection are rarely reported. However, data from the Campylobacter Sentinel Surveillance Scheme suggested that outbreaks might be more common than was previously suspected, since a high proportion of cases reported other illness in the home or in the community at the same time as their illness. To identify factors that might lead to these apparent outbreaks, the exposures of cases of Campylobacter jejuni infection reporting other illness, either in the home or the community, were compared with those for cases not reporting other illness using case-case methodology. Illness in the home was associated with consuming organic meats in the winter, having contact with a pet suffering from diarrhoea or visiting a farm in the 2 weeks before the onset of symptoms. Illness in the community was associated with the consumption of foods in restaurants or drinking unpasteurized milk. Prevention of campylobacter infection requires that better methods of outbreak detection and investigation are developed, which in turn should lead to a better understanding of risk factors.

Adolescent↗

Outbreak of hepatitis A infection among intravenous drug users in Suffolk and suspected risk factors.

A prolonged outbreak of hepatitis A infection amongst drug users in Suffolk prompted a study of the natural immunity against hepatitis A in this population, and a retrospective analysis of the relationship between specific drug-taking behaviours and the risk of hepatitis A infection. Prior to the outbreak, age-specific seroprevalence of hepatitis A IgG in drug users was similar to that amongst blood donors in the region. Of those without effective immunity, intravenous drug users, multiple drug users and those injecting frequently were more likely to have developed hepatitis. The reported frequency of equipment sharing and the number of injecting partners were not related to the risk of infection. The potential for blood-to-blood, and a suggested faecal-blood transmission were considered to be important in propagating the outbreak in this population. We suggest that a single dose of hepatitis A vaccine administered opportunistically should be used in outbreaks involving drug users.

Adult↗

A common source foodborne outbreak of E1 Tor cholera following the consumption of uncooked beef.

In July 1988, an outbreak of cholera with 71 culture-confirmed cases of biotype El Tor, serotype Ogawa, occurred in a non-endemic area in Mae Sot district, Tak province. Fifty-two cases had diarrhea and 19 had asymptomatic cholera infection. No cases died. Epidemiological investigation revealed a significant association between cholera infection and the consumption of uncooked beef. Increased risk of cholera infection was observed when the incriminated beef was kept at room temperature and consumed later without cooking. The beef was possibly contaminated with V. cholerae O1 from an infected butcher who may have contracted the disease from his foreign worker who was found to have asymptomatic cholera infection. Early detection of the outbreak and rapid identification of transmission source permitted prompt appropriate control measures which, therefore, prevented the outbreak from spreading to other communities. As outbreaks of foodborne diseases, including cholera, have been reported frequently after the consumption of raw food in many parts of Thailand, preventive educational efforts should be directed towards modifying the traditional behavior patterns of consuming raw food among these Thai people.

Adolescent↗

Hepatitis A outbreak in Anchorage, Alaska, traced to ice slush beverages.

The Alaska Department of Health and Social Services investigated a community outbreak of hepatitis A in Anchorage. A total of 57 persons who had hepatitis A between June and September 1988 were studied. Patients ranged from 1 to 54 years of age. A market was implicated as the source of the outbreak. An employee who prepared beverage mixtures in a bathroom was a contact of a person who had had hepatitis A 2 months before the outbreak; the employee was reported to have been jaundiced 3 to 4 weeks before the peak of the outbreak. The administration of immune globulin had an efficacy of 100% (95% confidence limits 69, 100%) in preventing hepatitis A among household contacts of primary cases. Similar beverages are sold by convenience markets and many other businesses nationwide. It is important to ensure that safe food-handling practices are followed by such establishments.

Adolescent↗