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PubMed1988

Short-term energy balance: relationship with protein, carbohydrate, and fat balances.

Energy balance (energy intake-energy expenditure) is known to vary considerably on a day-to-day basis in free-living individuals. The extent to which stores of protein, carbohydrate, and fat are used to store short-term surpluses of energy and the extent to which these stores are used to make up temporary energy deficits are incompletely known. We have measured body energy balance as well as carbohydrate, fat, and protein balances in 27 Caucasian men and 27 Caucasian women over a 24-h period in a respiratory chamber. An estimated weight-maintenance diet was fed to each subject. Because of individual differences in family background, body composition, activity, and the failure of some subjects to eat all of their food, these estimates are not exact, and energy balance is rarely achieved. Energy balance was correlated with fat balance in men (r = 0.79, P less than 0.0001) and women (r = 0.72, P less than 0.0001), and the slope of this relationship was not distinguishable from unity in men (1.16 +/- 0.18) or women (0.80 +/- 0.15). There were no correlations between energy balance and either carbohydrate or protein balances. This study demonstrates that carbohydrate and protein stores are closely regulated by adjusting oxidation to intake. Thus fat, rather than carbohydrate or protein, is almost exclusively used or stored in response to day-to-day fluctuations in energy balance.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Clinical aspects of leptin.

Hyperleptinemia is an essential feature of human obesity. Total body fat mass > % body fat > BMI are the best predictors of circulating leptin levels. Although ob gene is differentially expressed in different fat compartments, apart from total body fat, upper or lower body adiposity or visceral fat does not influence basal leptin levels. Similarly, age, basal glucose levels, and ethnicity do not influence circulating leptin levels. Only in insulin-sensitive individuals do basal levels of insulin and leptin correlate positively even after factoring in body fat. Diabetes does not influence leptin secretion in both lean and obese subjects per se. Independent of adiposity, leptin levels are higher in women than in men. This sexual dimorphism is also present in adolescent children. In eating disorders anorexia nervosa and bulimea nervosa, leptin levels are not upregulated but simply reflect BMI and probably body fat. In spite of strong correlation between body fat and leptin levels, there is great heterogeneity in leptin levels at any given index of body fat. About 5% of obese populations can be regarded as "relatively" leptin deficient which could benefit from leptin therapy. Leptin has dual regulation in human physiology. During the periods of weight maintenance, when energy intake and energy output are equal, leptin levels reflect total bodyfat mass. However, in conditions of negative (weight-loss programs) and positive (weight-gain programs) energy balances, the changes in leptin levels function as a sensor of energy imbalance. This latter phenomenon is best illustrated by short-term fasting and overfeeding experiments. Within 24 h of fasting leptin levels decline to approximately 30% of initial basal values. Massive overfeeding over a 12-h period increases leptin levels by approximately 50% of initial basal values. Meal ingestion does not acutely regulate serum leptin levels. A few studies have shown a modest increase in leptin secretion at supraphysiological insulin concentrations 4-6 h following insulin infusion. Under in vitro conditions, insulin stimulates leptin production only after four days in primary cultures of human adipocytes, which is apparently due to its trophic effects and an increased fat-cell size. Similar to other hormones, leptin secretion shows circadian rhythm and oscillatory pattern. The nocturnal rise of leptin secretion is entrained to mealtime probably due to cumulative hyperinsulinemia of the entire day. Like other growth factors and cytokines, leptin binding proteins including soluble leptin receptor are present in human serum. In lean subjects, the majority of leptin circulates in the bound form whereas in obese subjects, the majority of leptin is present in the free form. When free-leptin levels are compared between lean and obese subjects, even more pronounced hyperleptinemia in obesity is observed than that reported by measuring total leptin levels. During short-term fasting, free-leptin levels in lean subjects decrease in much greater proportion than those in obese subjects. In lean subjects with a relatively small energy store and particularly during food deprivation, leptin circulating predominantly in the bound form could be the mechanism to restrict its availability to hypothalamic leptin receptors for inhibiting leptin's effect on food intake and/or energy metabolism. Unlike marked changes in serum leptin, CSF leptin is only modestly increased in obese subjects and the CSF leptin/serum leptin ratio decreases logarithmically with increasing BMI. If CSF leptin levels are any indication of brain interstitial fluid levels, then hypothalami of obese subjects are not exposed to abnormally elevated leptin concentrations. In the presence of normal leptin receptor (functional long form, i.e., OB-Rb) mRNA expression and in the absence of leptin receptor gene mutations, it is logical to assume defective leptin signaling and/or impaired affector system(s) are the likely causes of leptin resistance in

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed2002

Appetite control and reproduction: leptin and beyond.

It is now recognized that appropriate regulation of reproduction, energy intake, and energy expenditure, and thus maintenance of body weight and fertility, relies on complex hypothalamic neurocircuitry. Feeding and reproductive function are closely linked. During times of undernourishment and falling body fat the reproductive axis is down-regulated. Circulating factors and hypothalamic circuits coordinate these responses. Leptin has been described to be an important peripheral signal that indicates body fat stores to the hypothalamus and thus links nutrition and reproduction. Leptin acts by altering neuropeptide circuits in the hypothalamus, which alter gonadotropin-releasing hormone release and food intake. The importance of key neuropeptide systems identified in rodents is now being established in man. Notably mutations in the melanocortin MC4 receptor are found in up to 4% of the morbidly obese, and in a proportion of patients with anorexia nervosa mutations have been identified in the agouti-related peptide gene (AgRP), which codes for an endogenous antagonist of this receptor. Intranasal administration of a melanocortin fragment known to activate the MC4 receptor decreases adiposity in humans. The melanocortin system has been shown to influence the reproductive axis in rodents. However, the role of the melanocortin system in the control of reproduction in humans remains to be established. Since the discovery of leptin, attention has also been focused on peripheral signals that regulate reproduction, food intake, and energy expenditure, either directly or via feedback on hypothalamic circuits. Notable new discoveries in this area include the gastric hormone ghrelin. Circulating ghrelin stimulates food intake in rodents and humans, although an influence on the reproductive axis is yet to be reported.

Agouti-Related Protein↗

PubMed1991

The influence of a calorie supplement on the consumption of the meal, ready-to-eat in a cold environment.

There is a dichotomy between calories issued to soldiers in their daily field rations and the amounts actually consumed. Soldiers frequently consume insufficient calories to maintain body weight. A supplemental pack (740 kcal) was developed, to increase field calorie consumption, and tested with the old and new versions of the Meal, Ready-to-Eat on a 10-day field study in Alaska. Initial and final measurements included body weights, heights, blood, and urine parameters. Daily measurements included the collection of urine samples and completion of a dietary intake log. Energy intakes of the supplemented groups were 4%-11% higher (p less than 0.05) although the calorie intakes were still below the recommended 4,500 kcal/day for cold weather operations. Mean body weight loss ranged from 3.0 lb (1.7%) to 4.8 lb (2.8%). Two groups of the four groups became hypohydrated by day 3, due to low water intake, and only improved after direct intervention to increase drinking. Water and food intakes were strongly correlated (p less than 0.05). Results confirm the success of the supplemental pack as a means of increasing food intake and underscore the importance of water discipline in a cold environment.

Alaska↗

PubMed2004

Serum leptin concentration poorly reflects growth and energy and nutrient intake in young children.

OBJECTIVE: We studied whether the serum leptin concentration at age 2 years predicts changes in relative body weight by age 8 and whether the serum leptin concentration is associated with intake of energy and nutrients at age 5. METHODS: A total of 156 8-year-old participants of the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project were chosen to represent children whose relative weight decreased, was stable, or increased during the preceding 6 years. Their serum leptin concentrations were measured in samples collected when they were 2 years. Serum leptin was also measured in 100 5-year-old children in the Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project whose energy and nutrient intakes were analyzed using 4-day food records. RESULTS: The boys whose relative weight decreased (n = 25), was stable (n = 28), or increased (n = 26) between 2 and 8 years of age had similar serum leptin concentrations at the age of 2 years. The girls whose relative weight decreased (n = 27) had higher serum leptin concentrations at 2 years than the girls whose relative weight remained stable (n = 26) but only when the leptin values were not adjusted for body mass index. The serum leptin concentration was higher in 5-year-old girls than in 5-year-old boys even when adjusted for body mass index. Serum leptin correlated with relative weight in girls and boys (r = 0.65 and r = 0.45, respectively). Serum leptin concentration adjusted for relative weight correlated poorly with intakes of energy, fat, saturated fat, carbohydrates, sucrose, and protein. CONCLUSIONS: Serum leptin concentrations at age 2 poorly predicted changes in relative body weight during the following 6 years and poorly reflected the intake of energy or major nutrients at age 5.

Body Weight↗

PubMed1995

Vitamin and mineral intakes of Anglo-American and Mexican-American preschoolers.

OBJECTIVE: To assess vitamin and mineral intakes of Anglo-American and Mexican-American preschoolers. DESIGN: By use of interview and observation methods, acquire food intake data, calculate total nutrient intake, and compare selected nutrients to the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for ethnic and gender groups. SUBJECTS: Low- to middle-income parents and their preschool children (N = 351) recruited from preschools in San Diego, Calif, consented to participate in the Study of Children's Activity and Nutrition conducted by researchers at the University of California, San Diego. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Data regarding 15 nutrients were summarized based on the average of two food intake records for each preschooler. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Means and standard deviations were used to describe micronutrient intakes for ethnic and gender groups; analyses of variance and t tests were performed to determine ethnic and gender differences. RESULTS: Boys and Anglo-Americans had higher total nutrient intakes than girls and Mexican-Americans, respectively. Mexican-Americans had higher nutrient intakes per energy intake, which indicates a micronutrient-dense diet. When each nutrient was considered by the two thirds of the RDA criterion (66% of the RDA means adequate intake), the nutrients most likely to be inadequate were iron, zinc, vitamin D, vitamin C, and niacin. Mexican-American girls had significantly lower calcium intakes than the other gender and ethnic groups. APPLICATION: Parents and day care providers must ensure that preschoolers, especially girls and Mexican-Americans, eat nutrient-rich foods in adequate quantities that will achieve the recommended intakes.

Biological Availability↗

PubMed1998

Swedish obese subjects (SOS): an obesity intervention study with a nutritional perspective.

OBJECTIVES: Swedish Obese Subjects (SOS) is a multidisciplinary project involving aspects of obesity ranging from description of the severely obese state to effects of surgical intervention on long-term mortality and morbidity. Dietary studies, which represent an integral part of SOS research activities, are the focus of this review. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Due to the large number of obese subjects included in the SOS data bases ( > 5000), an early priority of the project was to develop a dietary assessment method which: (i) described usual intake patterns; (ii) could be self-administered by subjects and rapidly processed; and (iii) was equally valid in obese and non-obese individuals. RESULTS: The SOS method has met these requirements and is now being completed by all subjects at baseline and during the intervention, and by a non-obese reference population. A number of dietary features distinguishing obese subjects have emerged, including: elevated intakes of energy and energy-percent fat; low consumption of alcohol, fruits and vegetables; high dietary disinhibition; frequent consumption of light meals and snacks; and night eating. In the surgical intervention group, a relatively high consumption of sweet foods was associated with better weight loss and maintenance. CONCLUSIONS: The SOS method appears to be less susceptible to obesity-related under-reporting than traditional dietary methods, and if the distribution of foods and nutrients can be assumed to be as unbiased as the energy intakes, this method should make it possible to capture associations between diet and obesity-related diseases in the future.

Energy Intake↗

PubMed1984

Studies on the protein requirements of growing cattle. Effects of differing intakes of protein and energy on growth and nitrogen metabolism in young entire males.

Forty-eight Friesian entire male cattle, with an initial live weight (LW) of 135 kg, were used in two experiments to measure the response to increasing levels of dietary protein (9-11 and 7.5-10.5 g nitrogen X 6.25/kg LW0.75) at differing energy levels (800-900 kJ metabolizable energy (ME) kg LW0.75) over 120-d periods. Digestibility and N balance measurements were also made during the experiments. The diets, which were based on barley and soya-bean meal, were individually fed twice daily. In a third experiment, similar diets were given to four similar animals fitted with intestinal cannulas, at constant energy intake but with variations in dietary protein of 7.5-13.5 g N X 6.25/kg LW0.75. Chromic oxide paper was used as a digesta marker. Positive responses in LW gain and N balance to additional protein were found in both experiments but these were significant (P less than 0.05) only in the second experiment and were associated with significant (P less than 0.01) increases in the digestibility of modified acid-detergent fibre and ME intake. Mean values, which were not significantly different between treatments, for the degradability of dietary protein in the rumen and the efficiency of microbial protein synthesis were 0.57 and 31.3 g/kg organic matter apparently digested in the rumen respectively. Corresponding values obtained by regression analysis were 0.56 and 28.2. The results in general support the Agricultural Research Council (1980) proposals and suggest that undegraded dietary protein was not limiting in these experiments but that rumen-degradable protein levels were limiting on some treatments. Regression analysis indicated that the mean response to additional protein (g LW gain/g N X 6.25) per kg LW was 0.52 in Expt 1 and 0.51 in Expt 2. These responses could be largely explained by increases in ME intakes. Measurements of duodenal amino acid flow showed marked increases in essential amino acids (EAA) across the rumen. However, EAA flows, were not significantly increased at higher N intakes suggesting that protein per se was not limiting in these experiments.

Amino Acids↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Food choice and fat intake of adolescents and adults: associations of intakes within social networks.

BACKGROUND: Influences of the social environment are important in determining eating behavior. Family influences have been demonstrated by resemblances in intakes within families, but research on resemblance in intake between friends is lacking. We investigated the resemblance in fat and food intake within social networks that included family members and peers. METHODS: Fat consumption was assessed with a food frequency questionnaire in 361 social networks consisting of 15-year-old adolescents (n = 347), their mothers (n = 309), their fathers (n = 270), their friends (n = 240), 79 friends of mothers, and 29 friends of fathers. Ten family interviews and four focus group interviews were carried out in a subsample. RESULTS: Within the nuclear family, the intake of 76 to 94% of the foods was significantly associated, which resulted in moderate Pearson correlations for fat and fatty acid intake (% of energy intake) between parents (0.30-0.34), between mother and child (0.19-0.38), and between father and child (0.16-0.26). No significant correlations for fat intake were found between friends, but the consumption of specific foods was related. CONCLUSIONS: We found clear resemblance in habitual fat and food intake between parents and their adolescent children and between spouses. Friends do not seem to have a lot of influence on the fat intake of adolescents and adults in this population.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Nutrient adequacy of low fat intakes for children: the Bogalusa Heart Study.

Nutritional adequacy is important when diets and dietary alterations are recommended for children. Concern is expressed that low fat intakes may have deleterious effects on growth and development and may be deficient in total calories and essential nutrients. In a study of the effect of variation in percent fat in the diet, a sample of 871 ten-year-olds was stratified according to four different fat intakes: less than 30% of total kilocalories (kcal), 30% to 35% kcal, 35% to 40% kcal, and greater than 40% kcal. The race/sex distribution was similar within each fat intake group. Fourteen percent of the sample had fat intakes less than 30% of total calories. The amount of calories from breakfast, dinner, and snacks was higher in the children with fat intakes greater than 40% of total calories than those with lower fat intakes. The energy intake of all race/sex groups fell within the recommended range. The low fat intake group was eating 25% less calories than the high fat intake group (1800 kcal vs 2400 kcal). The percentage of calories from carbohydrate, specifically sugar, was greater in the low fat intake group compared with the high fat intake group. Percentage of calories from protein was approximately 13% for all groups. Fiber and starch were the same across all fat intakes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Child↗

PubMed1991

Adult dietary intake and prostate cancer risk in Utah: a case-control study with special emphasis on aggressive tumors.

A population-based case-control study in Utah of 358 cases diagnosed with prostate cancer between 1984 and 1985, and 679 controls categorically matched by age and county of residence, were interviewed to investigate the association between dietary intake of energy (kcal), fat, protein, vitamin A, beta-carotene, vitamin C, zinc, cadmium, selenium, and prostate cancer. Dietary data were ascertained using a quantitative food-frequency questionnaire. Data were analyzed separately by age (45-67, 68-74) and by tumor aggressiveness. The most significant associations were seen for older males and aggressive tumors. Dietary fat was the strongest risk factor for these males, with an odds ratio (OR) of 2.9 (95 percent confidence interval [CI] 1.0-8.4) for total fat; OR = 2.2 (CI = 0.7-6.6) for saturated fat; OR = 3.6 (CI = 1.3-9.7) for monounsaturated fat; and OR = 2.7 (CI = 1.1-6.8) for polyunsaturated fat. Protein and carbohydrates had positive but nonsignificant associations. Energy intake had an OR of 2.5 (CI = 1.0-6.5). In these older men, no effects were seen for dietary cholesterol, body mass, or physical activity. There was little association between prostate cancer and dietary intake of zinc, cadmium, selenium, vitamin C, and beta-carotene. Total vitamin A had a slight positive association with all prostate cancer (OR = 1.6, CI = 0.9-2.4), but not with aggressive tumors. No associations were found in younger males, with the exception of physical activity which showed active males to be at an increased but nonsignificant risk for aggressive tumors (OR = 2.0, CI = 0.8-5.2) and beta-carotene which showed a nonsignificant protective effect (OR = 0.6, CI = 0.3-1.6). The findings suggest that dietary intake, especially fats, may increase risk of aggressive prostate tumors in older males.

Aged↗

PubMed1997

Total energy expenditure in 9 month and 12 month infants.

OBJECTIVES: To measure the total energy expenditure of 9 and 12 month old infants and compare with current recommendations for energy intake. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. Total energy expenditure assessed using the doubly labelled water technique over a 10 d period. Classical anthropometric measurements taken. SETTING: Community based study in and around Cambridge, UK. SUBJECTS: Twenty infants aged 9 months of age and 20 infants aged 12 months of age recruited via local hospital birth records. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Total energy expenditure calculated via the doubly labelled water technique. RESULTS: Measurements of total energy expenditure was successful in 34 cases. Mean total energy expenditure was 73.5 kcal/kg, 73.2 kcal/kg, 77.1 kcal/kg and 77.6 kcal/kg in the nine month old boys, nine month old girls, twelve month old boys and twelve month old girls respectively. These measurements are approximately 17% below current recommendations (FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985) at nine months of age and 22% below at one year of age. CONCLUSION: The data are consistent with findings in younger infants and older children in that the measurements of total energy expenditure are about 20-25% below current recommendations. It is unlikely that contemporary infants are being underfed and thus more likely that changes in feeding practices and modification of infant formula composition has led to the reduction in energy intake and energy expenditure in such infants.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed2001

Limited impact of lifestyle education in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria: results from a randomized intervention study.

AIMS: To assess the effect of intensified education on lifestyle (diet, exercise and smoking) as part of an intensified multifactorial intervention over a 4-year period in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus with microalbuminuria. METHODS: Patients, aged 45-65 years, were randomly assigned either to an intensive group focusing on change of behaviour as well as polypharmacological treatment (n = 80) or to a control group receiving conventional treatment (n = 80). Diet intervention focused on dietary fat and carbohydrate. Food intake was estimated by dietary history interviews and nutrients were calculated from food tables. Exercise and smoking habits were evaluated by interviews. RESULTS: Mean follow-up was 3.8 (SD 0.3) years. The decrease in total fat intake (% of energy intake) was larger in the intensive group as compared to the control group (41.2 (6.2) to 34.2 (6.0) vs. 41.9 (6.5) to 38.3 (6.4)%, P = 0,0001). The decrease in saturated fatty acids (% of total fat intake) was from 47 (4) to 44 (6)% with intensive therapy vs. 45 (5) to 46 (5)%, P = 0.001 and the increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids was from 14 (4) to 18 (6) vs. 16 (5) to 14 (4)%, P < 0.0001. Also the increase in carbohydrate was larger with intensive therapy. However, changes in exercise and smoking habits did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION: Despite the many resources invested in behaviour modification in this study, only modest changes were obtained in nutrient intake. Further studies are required to determine the best method of inducing long-lasting changes in behaviour in Type 2 diabetic patients.

Aged↗

PubMed1997

Serum concentration and dietary intake of Mg and Ca in institutionalized elderly people.

We determined the serum levels and the dietary intake of Mg and Ca in 93 institutionalized elderly people (24 men and 69 women) in Granada (Spain). The serum samples had mean concentrations of 21.39 +/- 2.08 mg/l magnesium and 93.39 +/- 9.24 mg/l calcium. No significant differences were found in the serum levels of the two minerals as regards the sex of the subjects. Application of linear regression analysis to the serum Mg and Ca levels showed a statistically significant positive correlation (P < 0.05). A low vitamin D intake of these subjects (51.8% of the recommended dietary allowance) was observed. The intakes of Ca and Mg correlated positively together, as well as with the intakes of energy, protein, fibre (in the case of Mg only), iron and phosphorus (P < 0.05). The Ca and energy intake were adequate to their current recommendations, as too was the Ca:P ratio, whereas the diet had a poor supply of fibre, vitamin D and Mg.

Aged↗

PubMed2002

Effect of social variation on the Irish diet.

Both jurisdictions of Ireland have high rates of chronic degenerative diseases, particularly of the cardiovascular system, and Irish migrants have worse health profiles, often lasting at least two generations. The influence of socio-demographic variation over the life course, and what role diet plays, has not been well researched in epidemiological terms. There is a long history of an unusual Irish diet. Estimated dietary fat intake (% total energy intake) in 1863 was only 9, but had reached 30 in 1948 and 34 in 1999. Conversely, carbohydrate intake has fallen steadily over 150 years. From 1948 onwards household budget survey data illustrate patterns of increasing urbanisation and socio-economic gradients in food availability. The National Survey of Lifestyles, Attitudes and Nutrition, (n 6539, 62.2% response rate) provides clear evidence of inverse social-class gradients in intake of fruit and vegetables and dairy products and in reported patterns of healthy eating. Median carbohydrate and vitamin C levels are higher among social classes 1-2 and mean saturated fat intake is lower. International comparisons indicate a continuing, if narrowing, north-south gradient across Europe. Data from the Boston-Ireland study suggest a crossover in both dietary intake patterns and risk of heart disease in Ireland and the USA in the 1970s. Contemporary comparative data of middle-aged Irish and American women demonstrate patterns of diet intake and inactivity consistent with the modern epidemic of obesity and non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Thus, dietary variations within and between countries and over time are consistent with chronic disease patterns in contemporary Ireland.

Attitude to Health↗

PubMed1989

Reduction of food intake in the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle.

Food intake was weighed and recorded daily during one complete menstrual cycle in 18 healthy normally menstruating women. Urinary luteinizing hormone indicated the time of ovulation. Mean daily intakes of energy, macronutrients, and alcohol were calculated for five phases during the menstrual cycle: menses, postmenses, ovulatory, postovulatory, and premenses. Weekly variations were also measured. Energy intake was lowest during the ovulatory phase compared with postovulatory, premenses, and menses phases (p less than 0.05). The maximum difference, 1.36 MJ (324 kcal)/d, occurred between ovulatory and postovulatory phases and was twofold higher than the increase of 0.64 MJ (152 kcal)/d observed at weekends. This reduction of food intake at ovulation has not been previously described in humans. It coincides with the expected peak in circulating estrogen levels and is consistent with the hypothesis in animal models that estrogen is an appetite suppressant.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Compliance with dietary guidelines in the Spanish population. Results from the Catalan Nutrition Survey.

The aim of the present study was to analyse the different food and nutrition profiles of the section of the Spanish population having either a low or a high intake of energy, fat, saturated fatty acids (SFA) and fibre in order to analyse the compliance with dietary guidelines. Analyses were made from the Catalan Nutrition Survey, comprising a random sample of 1600 people aged 18 to 60. Dietary information was obtained by means of two 24 h recall, and food and energy intake was categorized according to the quartiles of fat, SFA and fibre intake. The results show the food consumption patterns that distinguish low versus high fat, SFA and fibre eaters in the Spanish population, and facilitate the establishment of food-based dietary guidelines in Spain and other Mediterranean countries.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

[Metabolic balance in newborns receiving parenteral nutrition].

It has been realized a study about energy and nitrogen balances in 23 patients with total parenteral nutrition in order to know how they get weight increase and nitrogen retention. The parameters analysed were nitrogen retention, nitrogen retention/100 g. of weight increase, efficacy in use of nitrogen, metabolized energy and metabolized energy expressed in percentage of intake energy. Positive correlation between intake energy and urinary eliminated energy (p < 0.05) as soon as between intake nitrogen and urinary eliminated nitrogen emphasize among the results. We have verified too that the percentage of metabolized energy over intake energy is upper in operated newborn than in other affected by necrotizing enterocolitis.

Energy Metabolism↗