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PubMed1996

Effect of egg white on serum cholesterol concentration in young women.

In a previous study we observed favorable effects of egg white on serum lipids in rats and mice. The present study was designed to elucidate these effects in 24 female university students with moderate hypercholesterolemia. About 30% of total protein was supplied with egg white, tofu or cheese. The experiment was conducted for a complete menstruation cycle of each subject. Lipid intake was about 30% of total energy intake. The energy intake of each subject was constant throughout the experiment. Body weight was measured every morning. Daily activity was measured by a pedometer. Blood was withdrawn after an overnight fast on the first, 15th and last days and serum lipids were measured. Body weight was measured every morning. Daily activity was measured by a pedometer. Blood was withdrawn after an overnight fast on the first, 15th and last days and serum lipids were measured. Body weight and daily activity were maintained in all the groups throughout the experiment. The egg white group showed a similar decrease in the total cholesterol (Total-C) concentration but a greater increase of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentration as compared to the tofu group and a greater decrease in Total-C and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations and a greater increase in the HDL-C concentration as compared to the cheese group (p < 0.05). The results indicate the favorable effects of egg white in the control of hypercholesterolemia.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Living on the edge: dietary strategies of economically impoverished women in Cali, Colombia.

Economically impoverished women in Cali, Colombia, have restricted access to food in a city where food is abundant. Ethnographic observations, interviews and 2 day food records were used to better understand the coping strategies used by a group of these women (n = 85) to maintain adequate levels of energy intake. Anthropometric indicators of nutritional status were normal for the group. Interview data revealed that the ability to purchase food was a concern for 58% of the women. When faced with a restricted ability to purchase food, the women indicated they made compromises in meal composition, reduced portion sizes, and/or reduced the number of meals. They also relied on relatives, friends, neighbors, store credit, or local government programs for access to food. Changes in meal composition were identified in 17.1% of all diet records (n = 509). Low energy intake (defined as energy intake < or = 1.27 x BMR) was identified in 17.1% of all diet records. Carbohydrate consumption was significantly greater on low-energy intake days. The adequate nutritional status of this group of women suggests that their coping strategies are usually adequate to maintain energy intake, but the presence of uncertainty, the frequency of compromises in diet composition, and the frequency of low-energy intake days suggest that these women are at risk for undernutrition.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1991

Evaluation of the energy requirements of adult kennel dogs.

The objective of this experiment was to compare the energy requirements of healthy adult kennel dogs to those recommended by the National Research Council (NRC). The energy requirements of six beagles, six Siberian huskies and six Labrador retrievers were determined over a 54-wk period. Dogs were housed in groups of three in heated indoor-outdoor runs and fed a complete and balanced commercial dry dog food. Beagles had an average daily energy intake of 3414 kJ/dog with monthly averages ranging from 3146 to 3740 kJ/dog. Siberian huskies had an average daily energy intake of 5021 kJ/dog. Average monthly energy intakes ranged from 4715 to 5238 kJ/dog. Labrador retrievers had an average daily intake of 5611 kJ/dog with monthly averages ranging from 5063 to 6623 kJ/dog. Seasonal variation appeared to affect the breeds differently, with long-haired Siberian huskies showing less seasonal variation than the shorter-haired breeds. For all dogs energy intake (kJ/kg body weight 0.75) declined with age. The energy intake of each group of dogs was considerably below that recommended by the NRC. The reason for this discrepancy is unknown, although these data suggest that environmental conditions, breed and/or age play an important role.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1997

Effects of exercise on appetite control: implications for energy balance.

At a time of increased obesity, decreased physical activity, and high food consumption, the relationship between physical activity and appetite control needs to be examined. Many people believe that the energy expended as a result of physical activity generates a drive to eat. However, a counterintuitive conclusion arises since there is no compelling evidence that increased physical activity increases energy intake. A suppression of hunger occurs following intense exercise; however, this effect is brief and has no influence on energy intake. Indeed, there does not appear to be any within-day effect of exercise on energy intake. Day-to-day effects of exercise on energy intake could occur, but only a few provocative data exist showing a delayed effect of exercise on energy intake 2 d later. Therefore, there appears to be only a weak short-term coupling between energy expenditure and energy intake. What about the effects of increased physical activity on food selection? The natural hypothesis would be that the energy reserves used during exercise would estimate a drive for a particular nutrient. There is no clear consistent evidence to indicate that in the short-term, exercise induces changes in food or nutrient preferences. In the long-term there is some evidence that physical activity is associated with an increase in carbohydrate intake, but it is uncertain whether these changes are biologically driven for a result of changes of a psychological nature. Contrary to a popularly held view, food selection and nutrient intake constitute patterns of behavior held in place by environmental contingencies and short-acting post-ingestive physiological responses; these patterns of behavior are relatively immune to modulation by the metabolic effects of exercise.

Appetite Regulation↗

PubMed1998

De novo lipogenesis predicts short-term body-composition response by bioelectrical impedance analysis to oral nutritional supplements in HIV-associated wasting.

We studied the effects of enteral supplements on protein and energy intakes, body composition, energy expenditure, and gastrointestinal histology in 49 subjects with human immunodeficiency virus-associated weight loss (12.7 +/- 0.9% of body wt). We also determined whether a stable-isotope mass spectrometric measurement at baseline might predict the short-term response of fat-free mass (FFM) measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis. Thirty-nine subjects completed the study after being randomly assigned to receive either a whole-protein-based (n = 22) or a peptide-based (n = 17) formula. A nonsupplemented, nonrandomly assigned group (n = 13) was followed concurrently. Both formulas were well tolerated. Voluntary intakes of energy and protein from nonsupplement sources decreased significantly during supplementation [by 819-1638 kJ (196-382 kcal)/d and 5.6-14.4 g protein/d, respectively; P < 0.01] but to a lesser extent than the intake from the supplement [2300-2510 kJ(550-600 kcal)/d and 19-28 g protein/d, respectively], so that net increases in intakes of protein and energy (P < 0.03), as well as of several vitamins and trace elements were increased. Nevertheless, the mean FFM did not increase for the group as a whole, although there was considerable interindividual heterogeneity. Changes in FFM at 6 wk were significantly inversely correlated (r = 0.65, P < 0.01) with baseline synthesis of fat (de novo hepatic lipogenesis), but not with other potential measures of energy intake (insulin-like growth factor 1 or its binding protein) or inflammation (soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors I or II). The prospective identification of FFM response by measurement of de novo hepatic lipogenesis supported the hypothesis that the subset of wasting patients whose FFM is unresponsive to nutrient supplementation have altered nutrient metabolism.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Lessons from experimental disruptions of the menstrual cycle in humans and monkeys.

Prospective studies in humans and monkeys have informed our understanding of the mechanism of exercise-associated menstrual disorders (EAMD). These studies have provided convincing evidence that a key causal factor in the development of EAMD is an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. This imbalance is created by the increased energy cost of exercise in the face of inadequate supplementation of caloric intake. Although one prospective study in humans documents the impact of weight loss, studies in nonhuman primates (Macaca fasicularis) reveal that EAMD can occur with unobtrusive compensatory mechanisms indicative of energy conservation. The onset of EAMD is variable between individuals, but is abrupt, and with little forewarning with respect to recognizable symptoms. Future studies aimed at mechanisms should build upon the finding that key metabolic signals such as T3 are correlated with both the onset and reversal of EAMD, perhaps by focusing on concomitant metabolic changes that directly influence GnRH neurons. Translational studies examining the energetics of the reversal of EAMD by manipulating food intake and or exercise should build on the findings in the monkey model. Lastly, because EAMD is often associated with disordered eating, future prospective studies in humans should incorporate the potential interaction of disordered eating and psychosocial stress on EAMD.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Highlighting the positive impact of increasing feeding frequency on metabolism and weight management.

Research on feeding frequency started more than 20 years ago and some studies have shown evidence of nutritional benefits, especially on metabolism and body weight management. Advice on feeding frequency could play an important role in public health policies by reducing levels of overweight and obesity, the prevalence of which has dangerously increased in most countries over the last few decades. The 17th International Congress of Nutrition brought to the forefront the benefits of increasing feeding frequency (i.e. keeping the same total daily energy intake but dividing it into more frequent meals than usual). Recent epidemiological studies, mostly carried out in France, have provided evidence on the beneficial effects of a fourth meal for those individuals who habitually choose this pattern. Supported by metabolic data, these findings have now been supported by experimental studies. The "goûter", commonly eaten in the afternoon in France by most children and many adults, has the biological characteristics of a meal because it is eaten in response to hunger. Suppressing the "goûter" in "habitual fourth meal eaters" soon leads to an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI). Further, people who are regular "goûter" eaters have a higher carbohydrate intake and better metabolic profile than other adults, even though their total energy intake is not greater. Increased feeding frequency leads to a reduction in the total secretion of insulin, an improvement in insulin resistance and a better blood glucose control, as well as an improvement in the blood lipid profile. The experts agreed that, as long as we do not consume more energy than we use up and we only eat when we are hungry, it may be useful to split our total energy intake into as many meals as our social pattern allows. However, the pattern of eating cannot be completely dissociated from the composition of foods consumed. Therefore within this energy intake, we must take care to consume not only a good balance of macronutrients with high carbohydrate and low fat levels, but also ensure that we get an adequate intake of essential micronutrients. "What you eat" and "When you eat it" are public health messages to communicate: frequent consumption of low energy dense high carbohydrate foods, rich in micronutrients, must be encouraged ensuring that energy intakes are not greater than energy expenditures and that eating episodes occur in a hunger state.

Body Weight↗

PubMed2001

Compared with nibbling, neither gorging nor a morning fast affect short-term energy balance in obese patients in a chamber calorimeter.

OBJECTIVE: To test if a diet of 4.2 MJ/24 h as six isocaloric meals would result in a lower subsequent energy intake, or greater energy output than (a) 4.2 MJ/24 h as two isocaloric meals or (b) a morning fast followed by free access to food. DESIGN: Subjects were confined to the Metabolic Unit from 19:00 h on day 1 to 09:30 h on day 6. Each day they had a fixed diet providing 4.2 MJ with three pairs of meal patterns which were offered in random sequence. They were: six meals vs two meals without access to additional foods (6vs2), or six meals vs 2 meals with access to additional food (6+vs2+), or six meals vs four meals (6+vsAMFAST). In the AMFAST condition the first two meals of the day were omitted to reduce daily intake to 2.8 MJ and to create a morning fast, but additional food was accessible thereafter. Patients were confined in the chamber calorimeter from 19:00 h on day 2 until 09:00 h on day 4, and then from 19:00 h on day 4 to 09:00 h on day 6. The order in which each meal pattern was offered was balanced over time. MEASUREMENTS: Energy expenditure (chamber calorimetry), spontaneous activity (video) and energy intake (where additional foods were available) during the final 24 h of each dietary component. SUBJECTS: Ten (6vs2), eight (6+vs2+) and eight (6+vsAMFAST) women were recruited who had a BMI of greater than 25 kg/m2. RESULTS: From experiment 6vs2 the difference between energy expenditure with six meals (10.00 MJ) and two meals (9.96 MJ) was not significant (P=0.88). Energy expenditure between 23:00 h and 08:00 h ('night') was, however, significantly higher (P=0.02) with two meals (9.12 MJ/24 h) compared with six meals (8.34 MJ/24 h). The pattern of spontaneous physical activity did not differ significantly between these two meal patterns (P>0.05). Total energy intake was affected by neither meal frequency in experiment 6+vs2+ (10.75 MJ with six, 11.08 MJ with two; P=0.58) nor a morning fast in experiment 6+vsAMFAST (8.55 MJ/24 h with six, 7.60 MJ with AMFAST; P=0.40). The total diet of subjects who had a morning fast tended to have a lower percentage of total energy from carbohydrate (40%) than when they had six meals per 24 h (49%) (P=0.05). Subsequent energy balance was affected by neither meal frequency (6vs2; P=0.88, 6+vs2+; P=0.50) nor a morning fast (P=0.18). CONCLUSIONS: In the short term, meal frequency and a period of fasting have no major impact on energy intake or expenditure but energy expenditure is delayed with a lower meal frequency compared with a higher meal frequency. This might be attributed to the thermogenic effect of food continuing into the night when a later, larger meal is given. A morning fast resulted in a diet which tended to have a lower percentage of energy from carbohydrate than with no fast.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Dietary intake of energy and animal foods and endometrial cancer incidence. The Iowa women's health study.

To assess the relations of dietary intake of energy and animal foods to endometrial cancer risk, dietary analyses were performed using data from a prospective cohort study of over 23,000 postmenopausal Iowa women who responded to a mailed questionnaire in 1986 and were followed through the end of 1992 for cancer incidence and total mortality. Usual intakes of 127 food items were measured by a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. After 7 years of follow-up, 216 incident endometrial cancer cases had been ascertained. There was no statistically significant association of dietary intake of energy and most animal foods with endometrial cancer incidence over the 7-year follow-up period. Stratified analyses, however, suggested that intake of energy from plant foods may be inversely associated with endometrial cancer risk in the latter years of follow-up (trend test, p = 0.03), while high intake of energy and foods from animal sources related to slightly, but not statistically significantly, elevated risks of this cancer in the earlier years of follow-up. The only significant dose-response relation observed in food group analyses was for processed meat and fish, for which a significant 50% excess risk of endometrial cancer was found among women in the highest versus the lowest tertile of intake. This study suggests that dietary intake of energy and most animal foods is not related to or is only weakly related to the risk of endometrial cancer among postmenopausal US women.

Cohort Studies↗

PubMed2005

Low nutrient intakes among infants in rural Bangladesh are attributable to low intake and micronutrient density of complementary foods.

We assessed the adequacy of nutrient intakes of 135 rural Bangladeshi breast-fed infants 6-12 mo of age and examined nutritional trade-offs due to possible displacement of breast milk by complementary foods. Observers completed 12-h daytime measurements of breast milk and complementary food intakes; data for the previous 12 h were obtained from maternal recall, yielding estimates of total 24-h intakes. On average, infants were mildly wasted (mean +/- SD weight-for-length Z-score = -0.92 +/- 0.88) and moderately stunted (length-for-age Z-score = -1.49 +/- 0.96). Total energy intakes at 6-8 and 9-12 mo were 88 and 86% of absolute energy requirements (kJ/d), 106 and 105% of requirements per kg body weight, and 97 and 94% of requirements per kg median weight-for-length, respectively. Breast milk contributed 78% of energy intake at 6-8 mo and 75% at 9-12 mo. Mean meal frequency and energy density of complementary foods were generally consistent with recommendations, but only small amounts of food were offered. Nevertheless, only 72% of the food energy offered was consumed. Total energy intake was positively correlated with meal frequency, quantity consumed per meal, and energy intake from breast milk, but not with energy density of complementary foods. Energy intake from complementary foods was inversely related to energy intake from breast milk. The diets fell short of recommended intakes for numerous vitamins and minerals. We conclude that although greater intakes of complementary foods were associated with higher total energy intake, micronutrient intake remained low due to the low micronutrient density of the complementary foods consumed and the partial displacement of breast milk.

Bangladesh↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Energy expenditure measured by doubly labeled water, activity recall, and diet records in the rural elderly.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether energy expenditure estimated from physical activity and energy intake were equivalent to total daily energy expenditure in an elderly rural population. METHODS: Twenty-seven elderly male (n = 14) and female (n = 13) subjects (mean age, 74 y) were recruited from a rural Pennsylvania population. Over a 2-wk period, total daily energy expenditure was measured by doubly labeled water (TEE) and estimated from 7-d physical activity recall factors multiplied by weight (PA(WT)), estimated basal metabolic rate (PA(BMR)) and resting energy expenditure from indirect calorimetry (PA(REE)), and energy intake from 3-d self-reported diet records (EI). Analysis of variance was used to determine significant within-subject differences in physical activity, energy intake, and energy expenditure. RESULTS: PA(REE) (men: 13.69 +/- 3.23 MJ, women: 9.51 +/- 2.40 MJ) and PA(BMR) (men: 13.69 +/- 2.99 MJ, women: 10.15 +/- 2.21 MJ) were not significantly different from TEE (men: 12.43 +/- 1.63 MJ, women: 9.44 +/- 0.90 MJ). EI (men: 8.66 +/- 2.34 MJ, women: 7.12 +/- 0.93 MJ) was significantly less than TEE, and PA(WT) (men: 17.03 +/- 4.07 MJ, women: 12.86 +/- 3.41 MJ) was significantly greater than TEE. CONCLUSIONS: Whereas 7-d physical activity recall determined with an age- and gender-specific estimate of resting metabolic rate or measured using indirect calorimetry accurately estimated TEE for this group of rural elderly, self-reported diet records consistently underestimated and physical activity recall determined with weight alone consistently overestimated energy expenditure measured by doubly labeled water.

Aged↗

PubMed2000

[Frequency of intake and energy value of breakfast for students from selected primary schools in Warsaw].

Energy value and frequency breakfast intake in Warsaw primary schools were estimated in a group of 330 children aged 7-15 years. The research was carried out in autumn 1998 year. The nutrition mode was assessed by questionnaire interviews and of 24-hour recall [4] and computer programme "Zywienie". The size of the consumed portion was determined with an album containing colour photographs of products and dishes of different size [14]. Food consumption quality was estimated using test of Bielińska modified by Kulesza et al. [8]. Frequency breakfast intake decreased at older schoolchildren. Breakfast milk and products, vegetables and fruits intake was too low; intake of fat sweets and beverages like "coca-cola" was too high. Breakfast energy value was too low compared with recommended dietary allowances.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Food hedonics and reinforcement as determinants of laboratory food intake in smokers.

Both the hedonic ratings and the reinforcing value of food have been considered to be determinants of food intake. The objective of this study was to compare the pleasurable ratings and the reinforcing value of food as determinants of energy intake. Seventy-four smokers were studied in food consumption and reinforcing value of food tasks prior to enrolling in a smoking-cessation treatment program. For the food consumption task, the participants tasted and consumed food ad lib from eight snack foods. The reinforcing value of the food task assessed how hard subjects would work for a preferred snack food. Results showed that food reinforcement was related to laboratory food intake, with those high in food reinforcement consuming significantly more calories (+114.4 kcal, P<.01) than did the participants low in food reinforcement. Food reinforcement was related to food intake for the preferred food as well as to total energy intake. Hedonics for the preferred food was related to food reinforcement but not to either measure of laboratory energy intake. In multiple-regression models, food reinforcement and the interaction of food reinforcement by sex were significant predictors of energy intake for the preferred food and for total energy intake, along with baseline hunger. In conclusion, energy intake in smokers in a laboratory setting is more strongly related to food reinforcement than to the hedonic ratings of food.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

Energy expenditure of 'cafeteria'-fed rats determined from measurements of energy balance and indirect calorimetry.

1. Energy expenditure was determined in rats fed a standard laboratory diet or a varied and palatable 'cafeteria' diet, from metabolizable energy intake and body energy gain over a 15 d experiment. This was compared with measurements of oxygen consumption (Vo2) made over 24 h during the first and second weeks of the experiment. 2. Metabolizable energy intake was elevated by 50% in 'cafeteria'-fed rats and these animals gained more weight and had a higher body fat content than stock-fed controls. Energy expenditure derived from these measurements was 45% higher in the 'cafeteria' group, and the net efficiency for energy gain was significantly reduced. 3. Vo2 was increased by 45% in the 'cafeteria' group and the daily energy expenditure, estimated from Vo2, was identical to that derived from the energy balance for controls, and differed by only 3% for the 'cafeteria' group. 4. These results confirm the high levels of diet-induced thermogenesis previously seen in hyperphagic, 'cafeteria'-fed rats and reaffirm the validity of the carcass balance method for estimating energy expenditure.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Energy balance and physical activity in obese children attending day-care centres.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate energy balance and physical activity in obese preschool children attending day-care centres. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SUBJECTS: Twenty-four 3-5 years old obese children selected at random from four different day-care centres in Santiago City, Chile. Total energy expenditure (TEE) was measured by doubly labelled water and physical activity as recorded by TRITRAC R3D motion sensor. Energy intake was assessed by measuring food intake while at the centre, along with the recording of additional food intake in the home. RESULTS: Obese children had a 5.4% higher weighed energy intake than their energy requirements 2001. Energy intake during the week was 7716+/-1092 kJ/day and 7401+/-1023 kJ/day in boys and girls, respectively. Minimal activity was higher in the day-care centres (62%) compared to 52% during the weekend at home. Light activity was higher during the weekend at home than during the week (25 versus 20%), but moderate-intense activity was similar (3-5%). CONCLUSIONS: Reduction in dietary energy provided at the day-care centres helps to balance energy requirements during the week. Obese children had marked sedentary characteristics with regards to physical activity, although children are more active at home in weekends. This situation suggests that educators and parents need to improve children's physical activity levels and nutrition habits.

Child Day Care Centers↗

PubMed2006

Is dietary intake able to explain differences in body fatness in children and adolescents?

Obesity is the result of an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Controversial information exists about what are the strongest energy balance aspects influencing body fatness. This article is focused on food consumption facts that could be related to the risk of being obese in children and adolescents. It reviews whether energy intake, macronutrient composition of diet, eating patterns or other dietary intake factors are able to explain differences in body composition when obesity has been already developed or even in subjects at risk to become obese. There is not enough evidence to clarify the importance of diet on overweight children and adolescents, and conclusions derived are somewhat controversial. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies do not show clear relationships between energy intake or food composition and body fatness. To find relations between dietary factors and childhood obesity perhaps eating patterns or different types of foods must be considered: meal patterns and meal frequency, snacking and beverage consumption, fast food intake, portion sizes, etc. There is no clear association between different aspects of dietary intake and the development of obesity in children and adolescents. Longitudinal and experimental studies are needed in the future.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Swimming eliminates the weight gain and abdominal fat associated with ovariectomy in the retired breeder rat despite high-fat diet selection.

The effects of swim-training on choice of dietary fat, carbohydrate or protein, weight gain, energy intake, and energy efficiency were examined in ovariectomized and sham-operated retired breeder rats. After a 3 week training period of increased duration, rats swam for 75 min per session (5 days per week) for 4 weeks. Ovariectomized rats gained more weight than sham rats, while swimming reduced weight gain and abdominal fat. As a percentage of total intake, macronutrient choices (weight and energy) were similar for all groups, ovariectomized animals consumed more food and more energy, compared with sham animals. All rats freely chose the majority of their food (g) as carbohydrate and the majority of energy (kJ) as fat. Results indicate that a moderate intensity training program of swimming prevented the weight gain following ovariectomy in older rats despite their excessive caloric intake of fat.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1998

Effects of milk or water on lunch intake in preschool children.

In Sweden, milk and milk products are important sources of daily energy intake but the role of milk with preschool lunch meals has been debated frequently and water is often alternatively given today. We studied the effects of milk or water on lunch energy intake. Water or milk alternatively was served in a controlled, within-subject design on 12 occasions to 36 children aged 4-6 years, and energy intake was analysed at an individual level in three typical preschool lunches with a varying degree of preference among the children. When milk was given with the meals, a mean additional energy intake of 17% (p<0.0001) was found. The pattern was similar among boys and girls and irrespective of the lunch dish served. However, for the least preferred dish (fish with potatoes) milk helped to increase the energy intake by 26%. Physical activity measured as MET units (energy expenditure/body weight), atmosphere at the table as registered by a three-graded scale, and meal duration did not differ with meals or milk/water. Milk with preschool lunch meals seems to be a significant source of energy to achieve nutritional goals for this group of children.

Animals↗