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PubMedDate not supplied

Liquid chromatographic determination of vitamin D in infant formula.

A method is described for the determination of vitamins D2 + D3 in milk- and soy-based infant formula. Vitamins D2 and D3 are extracted from the saponified sample and converted to isotachysterols with acidified butanol. Reverse-phase liquid chromatography (LC) is used to remove interferences, and total vitamin D is quantitated using normal-phase LC. Recoveries of spiked samples averaged 97.6% for milk-based infant formula, and 98.8% for soy-based infant formula. This method quantitates vitamin D2 + D3 in infant formulas containing as low as 40 IU/qt when prepared according to label direction.

Cholecalciferol↗

PubMed2003

Sialyloligosaccharides in human and bovine milk and in infant formulas: variations with the progression of lactation.

Several lines of research support a role for human milk oligosaccharides in the defense of breast-fed infants against pathogens. Some ofthese oligosaccharides contain at least one moiety of sialic acid and are, thus, termed sialyloligosaccharides. These constitute a significant component (>1 g/L) of human milk. It is well established that milk composition varies among species, and previous reports have indicated that one ofthe differences between human and bovine milk is precisely their contents of sialyloligosaccharides. Because most infant formulas are manufactured with bovine milk components, it follows that formula-fed and breast-fed infants ingest dissimilar quantities of these carbohydrate structures. To ascertain these differences and their impact along lactation, the contents of oligosaccharide-bound sialic acids and major sialyloligosaccharides in samples of human and bovine milk (obtained at different lactation stages) were determined. In addition, infant formulas were assayed for their sialyloligosaccharide contents. Seven sialyloligosaccharides were identified in human milk; namely, 3'-sialyl-3-fucosyllactose and sialyllacto-N-tetraoses (a and b+c), the predominant structures at all lactation stages. Five sialyloligosaccharides were identified in bovine milk, of which 6'-sialyllactosamine and 3'-sialyllactose were the most abundant. In addition, sialyloligosaccharides in human and bovine milk decreased along lactation, and infant formulas did not contain significant amounts of sialyloligosaccharides. The results point to the general conclusion that regarding both qualitative and quantitative aspects, milk from humans and cows and infant formulas have different oligosaccharide contents. In this sense, bottle-fed infants are subject to reduced sialyloligosaccharide intake as compared to breast-fed infants.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗

PubMed2026

Flavoromics-based profiling reveals taste and aroma differences between infant formula and breast milk.

Flavor differences between infant formula (IF) and breast milk (BM) are considered a potential factor affecting infants' acceptance of IF. This experiment employs flavoromics combined with multivariate statistical analysis to systematically compare the flavor profiles of IF and BM. Electronic tongue analysis and amino acid correlation revealed that IF was characterised by pronounced saltiness and umami richness, whereas BM exhibited greater bitterness and astringency. Volatile compound profiling identified five key flavor constituents in IF, predominantly aldehydes such as hexanal and pentanal. In contrast, BM contained a broader array of compounds-including acids, aldehydes, and esters-resulting in a more complex flavor profile. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)-based metabolic pathway annotation, together with fatty acid profiling, suggested that some volatiles may be associated with lipid oxidation, Maillard reaction and sulfur-containing amino acid degradation pathways, offering a theoretical basis for the targeted optimisation of IF flavor.

Humans↗

PubMed2002

Nutrient requirements for preterm infant formulas.

Achieving appropriate growth and nutrient accretion of preterm and low birth weight (LBW) infants is often difficult during hospitalization because of metabolic and gastrointestinal immaturity and other complicating medical conditions. Advances in the care of preterm-LBW infants, including improved nutrition, have reduced mortality rates for these infants from 9.6 to 6.2% from 1983 to 1997. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has responsibility for ensuring the safety and nutritional quality of infant formulas based on current scientific knowledge. Consequently, under FDA contract, an ad hoc Expert Panel was convened by the Life Sciences Research Office of the American Society for Nutritional Sciences to make recommendations for the nutrient content of formulas for preterm-LBW infants based on current scientific knowledge and expert opinion. Recommendations were developed from different criteria than that used for recommendations for term infant formula. To ensure nutrient adequacy, the Panel considered intrauterine accretion rate, organ development, factorial estimates of requirements, nutrient interactions and supplemental feeding studies. Consideration was also given to long-term developmental outcome. Some recommendations were based on current use in domestic preterm formula. Included were recommendations for nutrients not required in formula for term infants such as lactose and arginine. Recommendations, examples, and sample calculations were based on a 1000 g preterm infant consuming 120 kcal/kg and 150 mL/d of an 810 kcal/L formula. A summary of recommendations for energy and 45 nutrient components of enteral formulas for preterm-LBW infants are presented. Recommendations for five nutrient:nutrient ratios are also presented. In addition, critical areas for future research on the nutritional requirements specific for preterm-LBW infants are identified.

Child Development↗

PubMed2004

Salmonella enterica serovar London infections associated with consumption of infant formula.

Epidemiologic studies were conducted on 31 cases of Salmonella group E infection detected in 2000 through a laboratory-based pathogen surveillance in Gangwon Province, Korea. Data were collected on the environmental exposures and the patients' foods, including the brand(s) of milk consumed before the onset of diarrhea. The patients' medical records were also reviewed. All of the patients were infants under 10 months of age except one 7-year old child. Surprisingly, all of the infants were fed with infant formulas from Company A, although two infants were fed with infant formulas from both Company A and Company B. Antimicrobial susceptibility test and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) were performed in 25 out of 31 isolates from the patients and in 1 isolate from an opened packet of infant formula collected from the home of an infected infant. All of the 26 isolates were Salmonella enterica serovar London. They showed a single PFGE pattern, and all of the isolates were susceptible to the 18 antibiotics tested. The causative agent of the salmonella outbreaks in the Gangwon Province and its surrounding areas was Salmonella London, and the highly likely source of the infection was infant formula from Company A.

Child↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Lead, cadmium, and fluoride levels in market milk and infant formulas in Canada.

Lead, cadmium, and fluoride were determined in 68 samples of market milk and about 115 infant formulas. Mean and median levels (ranges) in ng/g found for cow milk were as follows: lead, 1.12, 1.19 (0.01-2.48); cadmium, 0.10, 0.039 (0.005-0.74); and fluoride, 41, 40 (7-86). In canned, ready-to-use formulas, lead, cadmium, and fluoride levels averaged 37.3, 1.50, and 840 ng/g, respectively. In concentrated liquid formulas, the respective levels were 21, 3.54, and 600 ng/g. In powder formula concentrates, respective levels were 73.7, 6.78, and 1130 ng/g. On the basis of this study and literature data, lead levels in market milk exceeding 5 ng/g appeared to signify contamination of the milk either directly or via the cow. For formulas considered on an as-consumed basis, lead levels exceeding about 10-15 ng/g were attributed to contamination from either the can used to store the formula or the formula ingredients. Infant formulas in lead-free cans contained about 1.7 ng/g of lead on a ready-to-use basis. Milk-based formulas contained about 0.26 ng/g of cadmium on a ready-to-use basis. Soy-based or milk-free formulas contained about 8-15 times more cadmium than did milk-based formulas. Canadian and U.S. ready-to-use formulas contained 900 and 230 ng/g fluoride, respectively, and this difference was attributed to the level of fluoride in the processing water used by the manufacturers.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Size distribution of fat globules in human colostrum, breast milk, and infant formula.

Only a few results are available on the size of human milk fat globules (MFG), despite its significance regarding fat digestion in the infant, and no data are available at <24 h postpartum (PP). We measured the MFG size distribution in colostrum and transitional human milk in comparison with fat globules of mature milk and infant formula. Colostrum and transitional milk samples from 18 mothers were collected regularly during 4 d PP and compared with mature milk samples of 17 different mothers and 4 infant formulas. The size distribution was measured by laser light scattering. For further characterization, the zeta-potential of some mature MFG was measured by laser Doppler electrophoresis. The MFG diameter decreased sigmoidally in the first days. At <12 h PP, the mode diameter was 8.9 +/- 1.0 microm vs 2.8 +/-0.3 microm at 96 h PP. Thus, the surface area of MFG increased from 1.1 +/-0.3 to 5.4 +/-0.7 m2/g between colostrum and transitional milk. In mature milk, the MFG diameter was 4 microm on average and increased with advancing lactation, whereas the droplets in infant formula measured 0.4 microm. The zeta potential of mature MFG was -7.8 +/- 0.1 mV. The fat globules are larger in early colostrum than in transitional and mature human milk and in contrast with the small-sized fat droplets in infant formula. Human MFG also have a low negative surface charge compared with bovine globules. These structural differences can be of nutritional significance for the infant.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Determination of total fat in milk- and soy-based infant formula powder by supercritical fluid extraction.

Commercially available simple benchtop systems using CO2 supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) eliminate expensive organic solvent disposal problems and offer potential to meet a demand for rapid, accurate high-volume gravimetric determinations of total fat content of infant formula powders. A Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) approach was used to evaluate the performance characteristics of instrumental SFE extraction for determination of total gravimetric fat in infant formula. The established DQOs included the following: ACCURACY: Correct values were obtained for a suitable reference material, SRM 1846 Infant Formula [National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD]. RUGGEDNESS: Variables were defined as (1) extraction time (35 min optimum); (2) ratio of sample size to diatomaceous earth support material (1 g sample/2 g support); (3) ratio of distilled water to alcohol (50% isopropanol optimum for both milk- and soy-based infant formula samples); (4) extraction flow rate was 3-3.5 mL/min optimum. PRECISION: Relative standard deviations of multiple determinations fell within the Horwitz limits of acceptability of < or = 2.8% at the level of analyte determined (0.34-2.5% obtained). SCOPE OF APPLICABILITY: Includes milk- and soy-based infant formula powders. Research data were obtained by use of a commercially available fat analyzer. Samples of the SRM, 2 commercial milk-based and 3 commercial soy-based infant formula products were distributed to 2 additional collaborating laboratories. Very good agreement was obtained among the submitting and collaborating laboratories for these samples. The use of clearly defined DQOs to establish method performance characteristics, along with the commercially available reference material, provided the mechanism for verification and validation of analytical methodology.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Rapid, specific detection of Enterobacter sakazakii in infant formula using a real-time PCR assay.

Enterobacter sakazakii is a rare cause of invasive infection with high mortality rates in neonates. Powdered milk-based infant formulas have been associated with the E. sakazakii-related outbreaks in premature or other immunocompromised infants. In this study, an assay was developed for the specific detection of E. sakazakii in infant formula using an application of the fluorogenic 5' nuclease assay (TaqMan). A set of primers and probe was designed using the E. sakazakii partial macromolecular synthesis operon: the rpsU gene 3' end and the primase (dnaG) gene 5' end. The specificity of the assay was evaluated using 68 Enterobacter and 55 non-Enterobacter strains. The newly developed assay enables us to detect 100 CFU/ ml in pure culture and in reconstituted infant formula in 50 cycles of PCR without enrichment. The assay was specific enough to discriminate E. sakazakii from all other Enterobacter and non-Enterobacter strains tested. The developed real-time PCR assay could save up to 5 days and eliminate the need for plating samples on selective or diagnostic agars and for biochemical confirmation steps. The real-time PCR assay could be used to rapidly screen infant formula samples for E. sakazakii and would be a boon to food industries and regulatory agencies.

Colony Count, Microbial↗

PubMed2003

Quantification of non-protein nitrogen components of infant formulae and follow-up milks: comparison with cows' and human milk.

The composition of fourteen infant formulae and six follow-up milks with regard to their free amino acids (including taurine), free nucleotides, orotic acid, and free and total l-carnitine content was studied. The levels found were compared with the limits established in European legislation and with the composition of human and cows' milk samples. HPLC methodologies, optimized and validated for the matrices under study, were used, except for free and total l-carnitine contents that were quantified using a flow-injection manifold, also optimized and validated for the matrices under study. Global statistical treatment of the results by cluster analysis indicated similarities between the contents of the N compounds under study of infant formulae, follow-up milks and cows' milk and differences with regard to human milk composition. The principal component analysis showed that 60.2 % of the variation in data was due to the first principal component, and the second component represented 23.8 % of the total information. Nucleotide profiles, orotic acid, and free and total l-carnitine contents explain the main differences observed between human milk and the other milks studied (cows' milk, infant formulae and follow-up milks). Cows' milk is distinguished from infant formulae and follow-up milks mainly owing to the different uric acid contents and free amino acids profiles.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed2005

Weight gain in the first week of life and overweight in adulthood: a cohort study of European American subjects fed infant formula.

BACKGROUND: Successful prevention of obesity and related cardiovascular risk factors requires a clear understanding of its determinants over the life course. Rapid infancy weight gain is associated with childhood obesity, whereas low infancy weight is associated with coronary heart disease. Our aim was to identify during which periods in infancy weight gain is associated with adult obesity. METHODS AND RESULTS: A cohort of European American formula-fed subjects, measured on 7 occasions during infancy as part of several infant formula studies, were contacted at age 20 to 32 years, when they reported usual adult weight and height. A life-course plot was used to identify critical periods of weight gain associated with adulthood overweight (body mass index > or =25 kg/m2). These associations were tested with logistic regressions. Data were available for 653 subjects (72% of eligible subjects). Approximately 32% of them were overweight adults. The period between birth and age 8 days was identified as potentially critical. After adjustment for important confounding factors, weight gain during the first week of life was associated with adulthood overweight status (OR for each 100-g increase 1.28, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.52), as was weight gain during the first 112 days of life (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.08). Similar results were obtained after standardization with z scores from a reference population. CONCLUSIONS: In formula-fed infants, weight gain during the first week of life may be a critical determinant for the development of obesity several decades later. These results contribute to the understanding of chronic disease programming and suggest new approaches to obesity prevention.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Influence of probiotic supplemented infant formula on composition of plasma lipids in atopic infants.

Probiotic therapy is a new, successful approach to alleviating allergic symptoms. In this study, our aim was to investigate whether the positive results obtained with probiotic therapy would be associated with the differential absorption and utilization of dietary PUFA. 15 infants referred to a pediatric clinic on the basis of atopic eczema were weaned to Bifidobacterium Bb-12 or Lactobacillus GG supplemented infant formula, or to the same formula without probiotics (randomized, placebo-controlled, double blind study design). In plasma neutral lipids, alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n-3) proportions were reduced by the probiotic supplementation. In phospholipids, Lactobacillus GG supplemented formula did not influence alpha-linolenic acid proportions, while Bifidobacterium Bb-12 supplemented formula increased the proportion of alpha-linolenic acid; from 0.13 +/- 0.03 to 0.24 +/- 0.03 (mean +/- SEM) (P = 0.002). These results show that some physiological effects of probiotics may be associated with physiological interactions between probiotics and dietary PUFA.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1997

Risk of diarrhea related to iron content of infant formula: lack of evidence to support the use of low-iron formula as a supplement for breastfed infants.

BACKGROUND: Concern has been raised by infant feeding experts that supplementing breastfed infants with iron-fortified formula rather than low-iron formula may have an undesirable impact on their gastrointestinal flora. Thus far, there have been no clinical studies to address this issue directly. We compared the reported frequency of diarrhea for breastfed infants given iron-fortified formula with those fed low-iron formula. METHODS: Mothers participating in a mail panel provided feeding and diarrhea information on their infants at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 12 months (n = 1743). Infants were grouped into five feeding categories: (1) breast milk only, (2) breast milk and low-iron formula, (3) breast milk and iron-fortified formula, (4) low-iron formula only, and (5) iron-fortified formula only. We calculated the number of diarrheal episodes per week for each feeding category and used rate ratios to estimate the relative impact of low-iron and iron-fortified formulas. RESULTS: Among infants who received both breast milk and formula, the rate ratio for iron-fortified formula versus low-iron formula was 1.06 (confidence interval, 0.84 to 1.34), indicating that the type of formula a breastfed infant receives does not significantly affect the frequency of diarrhea. CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence to support the hypothesis that breastfed infants given iron-fortified formula are at greater risk of having diarrhea. This, in addition to the fact that iron-fortified formula has played a major role in preventing childhood iron deficiency anemia, supports the current recommendation that any formula given to infants be fortified with iron.

Breast Feeding↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Assessment of protein quality methodology for infant formulas.

Rat bioassay was used to assess the protein quality of powdered infant formulas and to evaluate the feasibility of using modified casein diets (containing the same source and level of fat and carbohydrate contributed by the infant formulas) as reference standards. Modification of the casein diet to match the milk-based formulas caused a significant reduction in weekly protein efficiency ratios (PER) and net protein ratios (NPR) at the third and fourth weeks. Modification of the casein diet to stimulate the soy-based formulas had no significant effect on NPR values; PER values were more varied. When PER and NPR values of the powdered milk-based formulas were expressed relative to the unmodified reference standard, the relative values were lower than when each matched reference was used. With few exceptions, the relative weekly PER values of the soy-based formulas were similar regardless of the standard used. The relative NPR values of the formulas had a pattern similar to the relative PER values. The data indicate that protein quality evaluation of infant formulas using rat bioassay warrants the use of matched casein reference diets for each type of formula.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Survival and growth of Shigella flexneri, Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis, and Vibrio cholerae O1 in reconstituted infant formula.

Formula feeding is an alternative method to prevent mother-to-child infection with human immunodeficiency virus through breast-feeding in developing countries. Growth of bacterial pathogens in reconstituted infant formula has become a health hazard when contaminated water is used for rehydration. This study was conducted to assess bacterial safety risk of using contaminated water to reconstitute infant formula. Survival and growth characteristics were determined for three bacterial pathogens, Vibrio cholerae O1, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, inoculated into sterile tap water (3.2-3.4 log10 colony-forming units [CFU]/ml) and infant formula (1.5-1.7 and 3.2-3.4 log10 CFU/ml) and incubated at 4 degrees C or 30 degrees C for up to 24 hours. Vibrio cholerae O1 was the most sensitive of the three pathogens when inoculated into water, with no viable cells detected within 2 hours at 4 degrees C or 30 degrees C. The rate of inactivation in water was greater at 30 degrees C than at 4 degrees C. Vibrio cholerae O1, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis grew rapidly in infant formula at 30 degrees C, reaching populations of 9.2, 8.7, and 9.2 log10 CFU/ml, respectively, at 24 hours. Populations of all three pathogens did not change significantly after incubating infant formula for 24 hours at 4 degrees C, but continuously decreased in water throughout incubation for 24 hours, regardless of temperature. Results suggest that unless refrigerated, reconstituted infant formula should be consumed soon after preparation to avoid increased risk of illness associated with increases in populations of pathogenic bacteria that may be introduced by contaminated water.

Humans↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Liquid chromatographic determination of thiamine in infant formula products by using ultraviolet detection.

A liquid chromatographic (LC) method has been developed for determination of thiamine in infant formula products. The method involves the following steps: (a) dissolution of the formula with water, (b) pH adjustment to induce protein precipitation, (c) filtration, (d) concentration of thiamine by using a cation exchange column and extraction system, (e) cleanup of adsorbed thiamine and other contaminants on the ion exchange column by washing with water and then methanol, (f) elution of thiamine with a mixture of methanol-2M potassium chloride buffer, (g) analysis for thiamine by liquid chromatography. Thiamine is separated from its phosphate esters, the mono-, di-, and triphosphates, as well as its antagonists oxythiamine and pyrithiamine on a 6 micron particle size column and a mobile phase of 40mM triethyl-ammonium phosphate buffer-methanol (pH 7.7) (90 + 10). The method is reproducible, with relative standard deviations ranging from +/- 0.76 to +/- 1.2%, depending on the infant formula product tested. Recovery of thiamine from various infant formula products is greater than 99%. Analysis for thiamine of several commercially available infant formulas at different levels of fortification gave results that ranged from 122 to 216% of the declared levels. These results agree well with those obtained using the AOAC fluorometric method.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Infant formulas. Recent developments and new issues.

Infant formulas on the market today should be aimed at providing the best alternative to breast milk for infants of those women who are unable to continue breastfeeding until 6 months of age and substituting ideally for human milk after 6 months of age approaching the structural and functional effects observed in breastfed infants. The aim is to mimic the functional outcome of the breastfed infant (e.g. growth and development), and not to copy the composition of human milk. For this purpose, the following compounds have been added to formulas and are reviewed: long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) for brain composition and neurodevelopment, probiotics and prebiotics for the fecal flora and the local intestinal defense, and nucleotides for promoting the immune response. Changes in protein quantity and quality allow to balance the blood amino acid pattern (possibly relevant to the early stages of brain development for the neurotransmitter function) and reducing the protein intake could be important for the prevention of later overweight. Hydrolysed proteins are important in the prevention of atopic disorders. Many trials have been published so far with short-term assessments, most of them with positive findings. However, we need more data on the long-term follow-up of infants who were fed the new formulas. Such data will allow to look at neural performance, prevention of overweight and obesity, and effects on the immune-allergic pattern.

Dietary Proteins↗

PubMed2004

Preparation and handling of powdered infant formula: a commentary by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition.

Powdered infant formulae are not sterile and may contain pathogenic bacteria. In addition, milk products are excellent media for bacterial proliferation. Multiplication of Enterobacter sakazakii in prepared formula feeds can cause devastating sepsis, particularly in the first 2 months of life. In approximately 50 published case reports of severe infection, there are high rates of meningitis, brain abscesses and necrotizing enterocolitis, with an overall mortality from 33% to 80%. Breast feeding provides effective protection against infection, one of the many reasons why it deserves continued promotion and support. To minimize the risk of infection in infants not fully breastfed, recommendations are made for preparation and handling of powdered formulae for children younger than 2 months of age. In the home setting, powdered infant formulae should be freshly prepared for each feed. Any milk remaining should be discarded rather than used in the following feed. Infant feeds should never be kept warm in bottle heaters or thermoses. In hospitals and other institutions written guidelines for preparation and handling of infant formulae should be established and their implementation monitored. If formula needs to be prepared in advance, it should be prepared on a daily basis and kept at 4 degrees C or below. Manufacturers of infant formulae should make every effort to minimize bacterial contamination of powdered products.

Cronobacter sakazakii↗