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PubMed2007

The association between conduct problems and the initiation and progression of marijuana use during adolescence: a genetic analysis across time.

The present study used a prospective, longitudinal design to investigate genetic and environmental influences on the association between earlier conduct problems and the initiation and progression of marijuana use during adolescence. Parent- and teacher-reported conduct problems assessed at Time 1 (1996) and self-reported marijuana use assessed at Time 2 (2004) were available for 1088 adolescent twin pairs participating in the Cardiff Study of All Wales and North West of England Twins (CaStANET). Using a novel approach to the modeling of initiation and progression dimensions in substance use, findings suggested that the initiation of marijuana use in adolescence was influenced by genetic, common and unique environmental factors. The progression (or frequency) of marijuana use was influenced by genetic and unique environmental factors. Findings for conduct problems indicated that while the presence or absence of conduct problems was largely heritable, the relative severity of conduct problems appeared to be more strongly environmentally influenced. Multivariate model fitting indicated that conduct problems in childhood and early adolescence made a small but significant contribution to the risk for marijuana use 8 years later.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Patterns of marijuana use among patients with HIV/AIDS followed in a public health care setting.

OBJECTIVES: To examine prevalence and patterns of smoked marijuana and perceived benefit and to assess demographic and clinical factors associated with marijuana use among HIV patients in a public health care setting. METHODS: Participants (n = 252) were recruited via consecutive sampling in public health care clinics. Structured interviews assessed patterns of recent marijuana use, including its perceived benefit for symptom relief. Associations between marijuana use and demographic and clinical variables were examined using univariate and multivariate regression analyses. RESULTS: Overall prevalence of smoked marijuana in the previous month was 23%. Reported benefits included relief of anxiety and/or depression (57%), improved appetite (53%), increased pleasure (33%), and relief of pain (28%). Recent use of marijuana was positively associated with severe nausea (odds ratio [OR] = 4.0, P = 0.004) and recent use of alcohol (OR = 7.5, P < 0.001) and negatively associated with being Latino (OR = 0.07, P < 0.001). No associations between marijuana use and pain symptoms were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that providers be advised to assess routinely and better understand patients' "indications" for self-administration of cannabis. Given the estimated prevalence, more formal characterization of the patterns and impact of cannabis use to alleviate HIV-associated symptoms is warranted. Clinical trials of smoked and noncombustible marijuana are needed to determine the role of cannabinoids as a class of agents with potential to improve quality of life and health care outcomes among patients with HIV/AIDS.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed1999

The onset of marijuana use from preadolescence and early adolescence to young adulthood.

Although it is well documented that intrapersonal and interpersonal risk factors are related to the frequency of marijuana use, much less is known about the initiation of marijuana use. This paper reports on a longitudinal study of the personality, family, peer, and ecological predictors of marijuana onset. Survival analysis was applied to a sample of nonusers of illegal drugs, followed from age 9 years to the 20s. The major findings indicate that (a) youngsters who are unconventional are at a higher risk for marijuana initiation; (b) youngsters who associate with peers who use marijuana or who smoke tobacco themselves are at increased risk for marijuana initiation; (c) youngsters who identify with their parents are less likely to begin marijuana use; and (d) the predictors related to marijuana onset emerged during preadolescence, early adolescence, middle adolescence, late adolescence, and the 20s. Results are discussed within the framework of a family interactional perspective of development. Implications for prevention are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Maternal marijuana use and neonatal outcome: uncertainty posed by self-reports.

To assess the validity of self-reported marijuana use during pregnancy, this study randomly allocated pregnant women into a group who were told their urine would be tested for marijuana, alcohol, and other drugs and another group not so tested. Women told they would be tested reported more marijuana use during pregnancy than did untested women. Moreover, urine assays identified more women who used marijuana during pregnancy than were willing to admit it in the interview even after being told their urine would be tested. No differences in reported drinking or cigarette smoking during pregnancy were found between tested and untested women.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Five-year follow-up of rural Jamaican children whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy.

This research provides data on the development of 59 Jamaican children, from birth to age 5 years, whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy. Approximately one-half of the sample used marijuana during pregnancy and were matched with non-users according to age, parity, and socioeconomic status. Testing of the children was done at 1, 3, and 30 days of age with the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scales and at ages 4 and 5 years with the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities. Data about the child's home environment and temperament were collected from direct observations as well as from standardized questionnaires. The results show no significant differences in developmental testing outcomes between children of marijuana-using and non-using mothers except at 30 days of age when the babies of users had more favourable scores on two clusters of the Brazelton Scales: autonomic stability and reflexes. The developmental scores at ages 4 and 5 years were significantly correlated to certain aspects of the home environment and to regularity of basic school (preschool) attendance.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Clusters of marijuana use in the United States.

In this study, the authors test for and estimate the clustering of marijuana use within United States neighborhoods, making use of data from annual nationally representative household sample surveys conducted during the period 1990-1995. A recently developed statistical method, alternating logistic regression, was used to quantify the clustering of marijuana users in neighborhoods. The resulting estimates of pairwise odds ratios ranged from 1.3 (95% confidence interval 1.22-1.42) for the lifetime history of marijuana use to 2.0 (95% confidence interval 1.6-2.6) for recent sharing of marijuana from one person to another. Exploratory analysis showed a slight decrease of clustering effects after adjustment for individual-level covariates: age, sex, race, education, annual family income, and history of tobacco use. Nevertheless, the main factors that account for clustering remain to be determined. Alternating logistic regression provided useful estimates of marijuana use clustering and can be used to estimate clustering of the other drug-related behavior, including sharing of needle injection equipment and other human immunodeficiency virus risk behaviors. As a form of multilevel analysis, the alternating logistic regression can accommodate shared, community-level characteristics that might influence drug taking (e.g., collective efficacy), as well as individual-level covariates, such as age and sex.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Antenatal marijuana use is unrelated to sexually transmitted infections during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the relationship between marijuana use and sexually transmitted diseases in pregnant women. METHODS: A retrospective review of clinic records over a 12-1/2 month period identified all women entering prenatal care. Eighty-six women using no illicit substance other than marijuana were compared to 441 drug-free women. The prevalence of gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B surface antigen, human papilloma virus, and herpes was ascertained. RESULTS: No significant differences were found in the prevalence of any single sexually transmitted disease between pregnant women who used marijuana and drug-free pregnant women. When the presence of one or more sexually transmitted disease was considered, again no difference was found. CONCLUSION: Marijuana use was not associated with sexually transmitted disease in pregnant women.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Early adolescent marijuana use: risks for the transition to young adulthood.

BACKGROUND: This study assessed the relationship of early adolescent marijuana use to performance of developmental tasks integral to the transition to young adulthood. The tasks concerned intimacy, education, and work and social conformity. METHODS: African American (N = 617) and Puerto Rican (N = 531) youths completed questionnaires in their classrooms. Five years later they were individually interviewed. Logistic regression analysis estimated the increased likelihood that early marijuana users would make an inadequate transition to young adult social roles. RESULTS: Analyses examining the association between early marijuana use and 20 outcome variables found significant relationships for 10 of them: (a) having lower educational and occupational expectations; (b) being suspended or expelled from school, fired from jobs, 'high' at school or work, collecting welfare; and (c) rebelliousness, not participating in productive activities, not attending church, and being an unmarried parent. Marijuana use was not related to any of the intimate relationship measures. These finding emerged with controls on gender, ethnicity, age and mother's education. CONCLUSIONS: Among African Americans and Puerto Ricans, early marijuana use predicts less adequate performance on some developmental tasks integral to becoming an independent young adult. Marijuana is not a benign drug and is associated with future risks for the individual and society at large.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Associations between biologically confirmed marijuana use and laboratory-confirmed sexually transmitted diseases among African American adolescent females.

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have examined the association between adolescents' marijuana use and their high-risk sexual behaviors and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). However, the validity of the findings is questionable because most of the studies relied on self-reporting for measurement of marijuana use and key outcome (i.e., STDs). GOAL: The goal was to investigate associations between biologically confirmed marijuana use and laboratory-confirmed STDs and condom use. STUDY DESIGN: African American females adolescents (n = 522) completed a self-administered survey and face-to-face interview. The adolescents provided urine and vaginal swab specimens that were analyzed for marijuana metabolites and STDs, respectively. RESULTS: Among the study subjects, 5.4% tested positive for marijuana. These adolescents were more likely to test positive for Neisseria gonorrhoeae (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 3.4) and Chlamydia trachomatis (AOR = 3.9). They were more likely to have never used condoms in the previous 30 days (AOR = 2.9) and to have not used condoms consistently in the previous 6 months (AOR = 3.6). CONCLUSION: The findings represent unique biologic evidence that STDs and sexual risk behavior may co-occur with marijuana use. Interventions designed to reduce adolescents' risk of STDs and HIV infection should address marijuana use.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Demographic, individual, and interpersonal predictors of adolescent alcohol and marijuana use following treatment.

A vulnerability model of adolescent substance abuse treatment outcome provided the basis for selection of demographic, individual, interpersonal, and treatment factors to predict the follow-up use of alcohol and marijuana in a sample of adolescents (N = 225) with psychoactive substance use disorders. Pretreatment levels of sibling substance use and aftercare participation predicted alcohol and marijuana use during the first 6 months posttreatment. Pretreatment levels of deviant behavior also predicted the use of marijuana at 6-month follow-up. Peer substance use at intake and 6-month posttreatment both predicted substance use frequency outcomes at 12-month follow-up. Alcohol and marijuana use frequencies at 6-month follow-up also predicted continued use for these substances throughout the remainder of the 1st posttreatment year. Shorter treatment length and being male were risk factors for alcohol use during the 2nd half of the 1st posttreatment year. Elevated psychological substance dependence at 6-month follow-up was a unique risk factor for subsequent marijuana use. Findings support conceptual models that attempt to explain adolescent substance abuse treatment outcome in terms of relationships among demographic, individual, interpersonal, and treatment factors.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Correlates of marijuana use in Colombian adolescents: a focus on the impact of the ecological/cultural domain.

To examine the influence of ecological/cultural factors and family, personality, and peer factors present during early adolescence that influence marijuana use in late adolescence. A community sample of 2,226 Colombian adolescents living in mixed urban-rural communities and their mothers were interviewed in their homes by trained Colombian interviewers, first in 1995-1996 and then again 2 years later. The scales used were based on item intercorrelations and grouped into the following categories: (a) adolescent personality, (b) family traits, (c) peer factors, (d) ecological/cultural variables, and (e) marijuana use. Data were examined using hierarchical regression modeling to determine the relationship between each of the domains and late adolescent marijuana use. The findings supported the family interactional theory of adolescent drug use behavior and found that factors in all of the domains had a direct effect on late adolescent marijuana use as well as indirect effects mediated through the more proximal domains in the model. Of particular interest was the strength of the influence of the ecological/cultural factors, which far exceeded that observed in similar studies done in the United States. Owing to the similarity with findings from studies conducted in the United States, interventions designed domestically could effectively be directly applied to adolescents in Colombia. The findings also suggest that prevention programs designed specifically to target ecological or cultural factors may have the most profound influence for reducing marijuana use in late adolescence.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

The consequences of marijuana use on intrapersonal and interpersonal functioning in black and white adolescents.

We examined the effects of marijuana use on adolescent personality, attitudinal, and behavioral attributes, perceived parent-adolescent relations, and perceived peer factors. Volunteer high school students (292 Blacks, 401 Whites) of middle-class backgrounds filled out questionnaires in their classrooms first when they were in the 9th and 10th grades and again 2 years later when they were in the 11th and 12th grades. Results suggest that regular use of marijuana may lead to lower achievement, increased tolerance of deviance, and more deviant behavior, and greater rebelliousness. Regular use also appears to interfere with adolescents' relationships with their parents and to lead them to associate with more deviant and drug-using friends. The consequences of marijuana use for intrapersonal and interpersonal functioning were for the most part similar in the different sex and age groups, although there were some ethnic differences.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Marijuana use and the risk of Major Depressive Episode. Epidemiological evidence from the United States National Comorbidity Survey.

BACKGROUND: This is an epidemiological study of a possible causal role of marijuana use in the development of Major Depressive Episode (MDE). Male-female differences in the suspected causal association have also been studied. METHOD: Data are from 6,792 National Comorbidity Survey participants aged 15-45 years, assessed via the University of Michigan modified version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (UM-CIDI). Survival analysis methods were used to estimate cumulative risk of MDE by levels of marijuana use and to estimate suspected causal associations after adjustment for other influences. RESULTS: The risk of first MDE was moderately associated with the number of occasions of marijuana use and with more advanced stages of marijuana use. Relative to never users, non-dependent marijuana users had 1.6 times greater risk of MDE (95 % Confidence Interval: 1.1, 2.2), even with statistical adjustment for sex, birth cohorts, alcohol dependence, and history of daily tobacco smoking. CONCLUSIONS: There was male-female variation in the degree of association between stage of marijuana involvement and MDE, but the strength of the association is modest at best.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Risk factors for adolescent marijuana use across cultures and across time.

An integrated analysis of the data from 3 different studies was conducted to examine the early psychosocial predictors of later marijuana use among adolescents. Longitudinal analysis of interview data was performed. The data used in the analysis were derived from (a) a sample of 739 predominantly White adolescents representative of the northeastern United States, (b) a sample of 1,190 minority adolescents from the East Harlem section of New York City, and (c) a sample of 1,374 Colombian adolescents from two cities in Colombia, South America. In 2 of the samples, participants were interviewed in their homes, and in the 3rd study, participants were assessed in school. The predictors included a number of variables from (a) the personality domain, reflecting the adolescents' conventionality and intrapsychic functioning; (b) the family domain, representing the parent-child mutual attachment relationship and parental substance use; (c) the peer domain, reflecting the peer group's delinquency and substance use; and (d) the adolescents' own use of legal drugs. The dependent variable was adolescent marijuana use. The results of the analysis demonstrated remarkable consistency in the risk and protective factors for later marijuana use across the 3 samples, attesting to the robust nature of these predictors and their generalizability across gender, time, location, and ethnic/cultural background. These findings have important implications for designing intervention programs. Programs aimed at preventing adolescent marijuana use can be designed to incorporate universal features and still incorporate specific components that address the unique needs of adolescents from different groups.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Prevalence and patterns of combined alcohol and marijuana use.

The prevalence of combined alcohol and marijuana use in the U.S. population was determined from the 1982 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. Past month use of both alcohol and marijuana was reported by 14% of men and 6% of women; in this group, occasional or more frequent use of these drugs in combination was reported by 79% of men and 67% of women. Among individuals aged 18-25 years, 24% of men and 12% of women reported using alcohol and marijuana in combination. More men than women and more individuals aged 18-25 and 26-34 compared with younger and older individuals used these drugs in combination.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Marijuana use in pregnancy and pregnancy outcome.

A retrospective analysis utilizing historical data collected as part of our computerized data base was performed to assess the impact of marijuana use in pregnancy on pregnancy outcome. Records of 8350 patients were reviewed and 417 patients gave a history of only marijuana use for a prevalence of 5%. There was no association between marijuana use and prematurity or congenital anomalies. Marijuana use was strongly associated with the use of alcoholic beverages and smoking. Previously reported associations may represent the concomitant use of these other drugs.

Alcohol Drinking↗

PubMed1980

Initiation into adolescent marijuana use.

In this longitudinal study, the relationship of three domains (personality/attitudinal orientations, peer relationships, and family socialization factors) with initiation into adolescent marijuana use was examined. One hundred and eighty-three adolescent boys and girls and their mothers were interviewed when the adolescents were 13-17 years old and again three years later. The results indicate that the domains of personality and family (with control on the other two domains and demographic variables) each appear to be related to subsequent involvement with marijuana. In contrast, the peer domain is not significantly associated with initiation into marijuana use once personality, family, and demographic clusters are controlled. However, the interaction of maternal demographic clusters are controlled. However, the interaction of maternal conventionality and peer marijuana use was related to initiation into marijuana use.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

The relationship among marijuana use, prior incarceration, and inmates' self-reported HIV/AIDS risk behaviors.

Inmates report use of a wide range of drugs including heroin, methadone, and cocaine at some point in their lives without a doctor's prescription. The most commonly used drugs include marijuana and cocaine; tobacco and alcohol are also widely used [Am. J. Public Health 90 (2000) 1939; Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 26 (2000) 229]. The present study explores the relationship between marijuana use and prior incarceration on 208 inmates' self-reported HIV/AIDS risk behaviors. Analysis involved descriptive and chi-square tests of association. Findings indicate that inmates with higher self-reported levels of education were significantly less likely than others to be repeat offenders. Data also support the argument that income prior to the most recent arrest and frequency of marijuana use was related to the outcome of being a repeat offender.

Adult↗