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PubMed1989

Children's responses to different forms of expression of anger between adults.

Anger is not a homogeneous stimulus, but can vary on a variety of dimensions and domains. This study examined children's responses to anger as a function of: (a) the mode of expression of anger (nonverbal, verbal, verbal-physical), and (b) whether or not anger between others was resolved. Children were presented with videotaped segments of angry and friendly interactions and asked questions concerning their responses. All angry interactions, including non-verbal anger, were perceived as negative events and elicited negative emotions. Unresolved anger was perceived as a far more negative event than resolved anger and induced greater feelings of anger and distress in children. Verbal-physical anger was perceived as the most negative form of expression of anger. Boys reported more angry feelings in response to anger than girls. Distress responding was greater in children from homes in which there was interparent physical aggression and in children with behavior problems. Finally, the utility of this methodology is supported by relatively high test-retest reliability and limited evidence of context effects.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2005

[Anger and health status in late school-age children].

PURPOSE: This cross-sectional study was designed to identify anger-expression types in late school-age children and investigate the relation between the identified anger-expression types and their health status. METHOD: One thousand twenty seven children in elementary school fifth and sixth grades were recruited from November to December, 2004. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, cluster analysis, 2-test, ANOVA, Duncan's multiple comparison test, and Wilcoxon rank sum test. RESULTS: Three anger-expression types in late school-age children were found; Anger-out/in, Anger-control, and Low anger-expression types. Children frequently using the anger-out/in type among the three types and with a higher state anger reported higher psychosomatic symptoms and depression. Children from a divorced or separated family reported higher state anger. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that a specific anger management program needs to be developed for late school-age children with high state anger and frequently using the anger out/in expression type. For understanding the anger level and the anger expression types of Korean school-age children, further research needs to be done with large samples using a randomized sampling method.

Anger↗

PubMed1989

Anger assessment and reactivity to stress.

This study compared a questionnaire method to an interview method of anger assessment in predicting reactivity to a stressor and explored possible associations between anger expression and reactivity to a stressor. Blood pressure, heart rate and plasma catecholamines were measured in 40 normotensive subjects before and after a 5 min mental arithmetic task. The questionnaire and interview anger scores were related (p = 0.03). Anger expressed outward was associated with lower heart rate (p = 0.005) and norepinephrine (p = 0.01) reactivity to the stressor. The results suggest that self report questionnaires may be a reliable and inexpensive way to evaluate anger in the context of reactivity to stressors and that anger expression, particularly anger expressed outward, may be related to decreased heart rate and norepinephrine reactivity. The relationship between anger expression and reactivity to stressors may provide insight into the mechanisms linking anger, blood pressure and incidence of cardiovascular disease.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Impaired recognition of facial expressions of anger in Parkinson's disease patients acutely withdrawn from dopamine replacement therapy.

We have previously reported that acute dopaminergic blockade in healthy volunteers results in a transient disruption of the recognition of facial expressions of anger, whilst leaving intact the recognition of other facial expressions (including fear and disgust) and facial identity processing. Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterised by cell loss in dopaminergic neuronal populations, and hence we predicted that PD would be associated with impaired anger recognition. We reasoned that treatment with dopamine replacement therapy (DRT) could mask any deficit present in PD, and therefore studied facial expression recognition in a group of PD patients transiently withdrawn from DRT. Seventeen PD patients were compared to 21 age- and IQ-matched controls on the Ekman 60 task, which required the forced-choice labelling of 10 exemplars of each of six facial expressions (anger, disgust, fear, sadness, happiness, surprise). In line with our predictions, PD patients showed a selective impairment in the recognition of facial expressions of anger. This deficit was not related to the PD patients' performance on the Benton unfamiliar-face matching task, which was normal, nor was the deficit related to overall disease severity, or to depression symptoms. However, as predicted by simulation theories, impaired anger recognition in PD was related to reduced levels of the anger-linked temperament trait, exploratory excitability. The results extend our previous findings of a role for dopamine in the processing of facial expressions of anger, and demonstrate the power of adopting a phylogenetic, comparative perspective on emotions.

Aged↗

PubMed2004

What's the use in getting mad? Anger and instrumentality in women's relationships.

In two studies, we examined women's anger expression and its instrumental function in relationships by addressing the following questions: What is the relationship between women's self-reports of instrumentality and their perceived styles of anger expression? In what ways and situations do women see their anger expression as instrumental or goal enhancing? In Study I, we expected that women's perceived styles of anger expression would be positively related to instrumentality, as measured with the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 4, 43, 1974). Although our hypothesis was not supported, a positive relationship did emerge between assertiveness and instrumentality, as predicted. In Study II, we conducted three focus group discussions to elucidate women's experiences of anger and to provide clarification for the results of Study I. We identified group themes related to when women experienced their anger expression as instrumental as well as when women perceived themselves as noninstrumental in anger-arousing situations. In their narratives, women explained how they make decisions about expressing their anger based on relationship concerns.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1998

Anger and blood pressure readings in children.

This study investigated the relationship of state and trait anger measured by the Jacob's Pediatric Anger Scale, patterns of anger expression measured by Jacob's Pediatric Anger Expression Scale, and blood pressure readings (BPR) in 230 third-grade children. Analysis of data revealed significant inverse relationships between anger suppression and diastolic BPR and anger reflection and control and both diastolic and systolic BPR. As anger suppression increased, diastolic BPR decreased. As anger reflection and control increased, both systolic and diastolic BPR decreased. When gender was considered, the relationship between anger reflection and control and systolic BPR was apparent only for girls, whereas the relationship between anger reflection and control and diastolic BPR was apparent only for boys. When correlations were computed based on gender and race, a significant inverse relationship between anger reflection and control and systolic BPR in Black girls was found. The results suggest that the influence of race and gender on the relationships between anger expression and systolic and diastolic BPR, which has been documented in adults, may be present in childhood.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2003

An application of cognitive-behavioral anger management training in a military/occupational setting: efficacy and demographic factors.

OBJECTIVE: This treatment outcome study evaluated the efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral psychoeducational anger management training application offered in a military/occupational setting. Additionally, demographic factors were analyzed to identify any relationship among age, gender, occupational/educational status, and anger subscale scores or treatment effects. METHOD: The State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory was used as a pretest/post-test measure for 91 total participants in a series of four-session cognitive behavioral anger management training groups conducted through Francis E. Warren Air Force Base mental health clinic over an 18-month period. RESULTS: Significant improvements (p < 0.05) on all State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory anger scales were noted for the 46 participants who completed the program. Post hoc comparisons of demographic factors yielded no significant differences. CONCLUSIONS: The results are consistent with previously published findings insofar as the intervention was effective in reducing self-reported anger as measured by the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory. The present study affirms the efficacy of a brief cognitive-behavioral psychoeducational approach to treat problem anger in a noncontrolled community/occupational sample.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Visual discrimination and recognition of facial expressions of anger, fear, and surprise in 4- to 6-month-old infants.

On the assumption that the ability to discriminate facial expressions has adaptive value to infants during early social exchanges, ethologically based theorists have argued that this ability is innate. Guided by this perspective, we investigated the ability of infants, 4-6 months old to recognize and discriminate facial expressions of anger, fear, and surprise. Results obtained with an infant-controlled habituation-recovery procedure showed that infants both discriminated and recognized these expressions when portrayed by several adult female models. In addition, infants spent more time looking at expressions of anger and surprise than at fear expressions. These results suggest that infants can abstract configurations of features that give affective meaning to facial expressions. It is suggested that the differences in habituation to each expression might be the result of their distinct functional signification for the infant.

Anger↗

PubMed2006

Hostility, anger, and sense of coherence as predictors of health-related quality of life. Results of an ASCOT substudy.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of hostility and anger expression to sense of coherence (SOC) and their role as predictors of health-related quality of life (HQL). It was hypothesised that SOC would mediate the impact of hostility and anger on HQL. METHODS: This is a substudy of the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial, which evaluates different treatment strategies to prevent cardiovascular disease in hypertensive patients. At baseline, SOC was assessed with a short form measure, and hostility-anger with the Cynical Distrust scale and with the Anger Expression scales. HQL was assessed at 6 months with the RAND-36. The sample comprised of 774 subjects (77.5% men). RESULTS: Results showed that strong SOC associates with ability to control expression of anger and with low levels of suppressed or openly expressed anger. Anger control and SOC were related to good HQL; cynicism, anger-out, and anger-in correlated negatively with HQL. Path models revealed that SOC was the strongest predictor of HQL while hostility and anger lost their direct impact on HQL. CONCLUSIONS: Given the significant associations of hostility and anger with SOC, it is concluded that the salutogenic theory of Antonovsky (A. Antonovsky, Health, Stress, and Coping: New Perspectives on Mental Health and Physical Well-Being, Jossey-Bass Inc, San Francisco, 1979) should be extended to include hostility-related constructs. The impact of hostility and anger on HQL is, to a great extent, mediated through SOC, which implies that in future studies, the role of hostility as a risk factor of ill health should be reconsidered from the SOC theory perspective.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Group interventions for anger in people with intellectual disabilities.

This paper describes an evaluation of a group intervention for reducing inappropriately expressed anger (as aggression) in people with intellectual disabilities. Group intervention was compared to a treatment as usual group consisting of people referred to the group but who had to wait to participate. The intervention used was based on the work of Novaco (1976; 1978) and Benson (1994). However, further modifications to the group that emphasized the contextual perspective of anger, such as the participants being accompanied by a support worker and more collaborative recording procedures, were devised. A reduction in expressed anger and measured levels of depression occurred after group treatment. Reductions in expressed anger were maintained at 6 and 12 months follow up. However, scores on the depression scale tended to increase on follow up. While caution must be expressed when considering these results, this type of intervention shows promise for reducing inappropriately expressed anger in people with intellectual disabilities Suggestions are made for future research and clinical practice.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Vocal expression of anger and cardiovascular reactivity within dyadic interactions.

This experiment was conducted to examine whether the vocal expression of anger correlated with cardiovascular reactivity within dyadic interactions. Participants selected three social issues on which they had a strong opinion and, with a confederate who opposed their views, debated these opinions in each of the three vocal styles. The three vocal styles were (1) Anger-out during which they described their view in a loud, fast voice, (2) Mood-incongruent during which they described their view in a soft, slow voice, and (3) Anger-in during which they listened to the confederate oppose their view and only responded from a list of neutral phrases given to them. Cardiovascular reactivity measures (heart rate and blood pressure) were taken during the initial baseline and the three expression of anger conditions. Both the anger-out and mood-incongruent vocal styles significantly correlated with systolic blood pressure and heart-rate reactivity measures. The disparity between the results of this experiment and previous ones on anger and cardiovascular response may be related to differences in the method of anger-arousal (memory-evoked versus dyadic interactions). Results are discussed in terms of similarities to active and passive coping and defensiveness.

Adult↗

PubMed1985

A test to measure the awareness and expression of anger.

The purpose of this project was to develop a reliable, objective and practical tool with which the awareness and expression of anger could be investigated. This paper gives a description of the Awareness and Expression of Anger Indicator (AEAI). The AEAI is a short and easy to use test. It provides a new objective assessment instrument of value in cases where deficits in affective processes, particularly anger, are suspected. 30 medical patients were tested with the AEAI. The investigators report a high inter-rater reliability in scoring the test. Four distinct response patterns emerged. Also, when confronted with the same anger-provoking stimulus, subjects responded significantly differently with respect to whether or not they felt angry, depending on the type of question. Traditional inducing questions, e.g.: Would you feel angry?, produced significantly more affirmative responses (reports of feeling angry) than non-inducing questions, e.g.: How would you feel? The contribution of the AEAI to chronic pain work is discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Emotional and cardiovascular responses to adults' angry behavior and to challenging tasks in children of hypertensive and normotensive parents.

Cardiovascular, overt-motor, and verbal-reported responses to interadult emotional expressions, including anger, and to challenging task situations were examined in a sample of 49 10-14-year-old children of hypertensive (EH) and normotensive parents (NT). Sons of EH parents showed greater systolic blood pressure reactivity to interadult anger and to the digit span task than sons of NT parents. A consistent pattern was not found for girls. Marital distress and overt maternal anger expression predicted verbal-reported and overt-motor responses to interadult anger. Family history of EH and sex did not predict these responses. Implications include (a) heightened systolic blood pressure response to stress may be found in sons of EH parents before they are diagnosed to have EH disorders, (b) relations between family history of EH and cardiovascular response may be sex moderated, and (c) vulnerability to stress may be related to specific familial histories and backgrounds.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2003

Pharmacologic denervation of frown muscles enhances baseline expression of happiness and decreases baseline expression of anger, sadness, and fear.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with intense frowning are commonly perceived as expressing negative emotions. Anger, fear, and sadness are associated with corrugator ("frown") muscle activity. OBJECTIVE: We sought to study how faces were perceived by others after denervation of frown muscles with localized botulinum toxin injections for treatment of facial frown lines. METHODS: Facial photographs were taken from volunteers before and after botulinum toxin injection. These photographs were shown to viewers who were naive to the procedure and asked to rate the expressed intensity of anger, sadness, fear, and happiness. As reference for this task we used a standard set of pictures of facial affect displaying different intensity levels for each emotion tested. RESULTS: Of 40 viewers, 39 were able to discriminate different intensity levels (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of emotional affect in the control task. According to their ratings faces with denervated frown muscle activity expressed relatively less anger (-40%), fear (-49%), sadness (-10%), and more happiness (+71%). CONCLUSION: Frown muscle activity is essential for both negative and positive emotional expressions. Temporary denervation using botulinum toxin enhances the facial expression of positive emotion resulting in a shift rather than a loss of facial affect.

Anti-Dyskinesia Agents↗

PubMed2006

[Anger, cardiovascular health and depression in middle-aged Korean men: the mediating effect of social support].

PURPOSE: A descriptive correlational study was designed to examine the relationship of trait anger and anger expression to blood pressure, cholesterol, and depression in middle-aged Korean men. In addition, this study investigated the mediating effect of social support in relation to anger and other variables. METHODS: Two hundred and ninety nine men aged 40 to 64 years were recruited from a health center at K University Hospital located in Ansan City, Kyungki province, Korea. The instruments used were Spielberger's state trait anger expression inventory-the Korean version for trait anger and anger expression, Beck's depression inventory for depression, and a Personal resource questionnaire for perceived social support. RESULTS: Men with high trait anger showed significantly higher systolic blood pressure(BP) and diastolic BP. The level of cholesterol did not have a significant relationship with trait anger and anger expression. The severity of depression was significantly higher in men with high trait anger or more frequent uses of anger-in or anger-out. The perceived social support had a significant mediating effect in relation to trait anger and depression. CONCLUSIONS: Various nursing interventions for managing anger or improving social support need to be developed in a future study.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The expression of anger and its relationship to symptoms and cognitions in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

We compared the association between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and the expression of anger in a sample of 71 patients and 71 college students. Some authors [Rubenstein et al., J Anxiety Disord 1995;9:1-9] have proposed that anger and hostility underlie the symptoms of OCD; however, there has been little empirical study of this relationship. One recent study [Whiteside and Abramowitz, Cog Therapy Res 2004;28:259-268] with college undergraduates found that the association between OCD symptoms and anger was attributable to depressive symptoms. In the present study, we compared the expression of anger in a sample of patients diagnosed with OCD and nonclinical volunteers. Consistent with the previous study, we found increased levels of anger in patients with OCD as compared to control participants; however, these differences could be attributed to between-group differences in general distress. These results were discussed within the framework of the cognitive theory of OCD.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Anger in early adolescent boys and girls with health manifestations.

BACKGROUND: Some theorists suggest that boys and girls might experience and express anger in different ways, while others do not, making the study of sex differences in anger an important area for investigation. Further, much has been written theoretically about the health implications of anger, but there is a paucity of studies that have examined the relationship between anger and health variables in early adolescent boys and girls separately. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to examine sex differences in anger in early adolescents, and to examine the relationship between anger and several health variables, e.g., current health status, clinical health, eudaimonistic health for boys and girls separately. METHODS: This study compared differences in five anger variables between boys and girls, and examined relationships between the anger variables and health variables for boys and girls separately. The final sample consisted of 148 seventh and eighth graders, ages 12 to 14; 81 were girls and 67 were boys. They responded to the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory and instruments measuring three health variables. RESULTS: Using multisample analysis via LISREL 7 and independent t tests, findings indicated that boys and girls did not differ in the experience and expression of anger. Pearson correlations were used to examine the relationships between the anger variables and the health variables for boys and girls separately. Of the 30 relationships examined, 12 were statistically significant; seven of these correlations were for girls, while five were for boys. CONCLUSIONS: Early adolescent boys and girls may not differ in any meaningful way in self-reported experiences and expressions of anger, but they may differ in health outcomes in relation to various types of anger.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1995

Characteristics of individuals who excrete versus retain sodium under stress.

To examine the role of stress on renal sodium excretion, we studied 27 normotensive and 21 hypertensive subjects. All subjects were placed on a standardized sodium diet. After water loading (2290 ml in 3 1/2 hr) they completed a 30 min baseline and a 30 min stress period (competitive videogame). Sixty-nine percent of the subjects increased ("excreters") and 31% decreased ("retainers") their sodium excretion under stress. In addition to increased potassium excretion (p < 0.006), excreters also manifested less of a stress associated increase in systolic (p = 0.055) and diastolic (p = 0.040) blood pressure and showed greater expression of anger (p < 0.02) than retainers. The same subjects were also studied to determin the effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition (captopril 25 mg b.i.d.) on sodium excretion. On captopril, excreters now showed a retention of sodium (p < 0.001) and potassium (p < 0.01) under stress and no longer differed significantly in blood pressure reactivity. The results suggest that there are two different stress-related patterns of renal sodium excretion, that these patterns are related to blood pressure responses to stress, and may be related to anger expression. In addition, sodium excretion patterns under stress may be altered with certain type of antihypertensive medications.

Adult↗