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PubMedDate not supplied

Analysis of fluoride concentration in mother's milk substitutes.

The aim of the present study was to determine the fluoride concentration in some brands of mother's milk substitutes and evaluate the possibility of developing dental fluorosis by consuming these products. The products, all powdered, were divided into 3 groups: infant formulae (group I, n = 7), milk-based (group M, n = 8) and soy-based (group S, n = 3). Samples from 3 cans of different batches of each brand were reconstituted in deionized water and analyzed using the specific electrode method, after hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDS) facilitated diffusion. The fluoride content (mg F/L) of the products ranged from 0.044 to 0.326 (I), 0.014 to 0.045 (M) and 0.253 to 0.702 (S). There was significant difference in the fluoride content of cans from distinct batches (p < 0.05) in most of the brands. The reconstitution of all products in water with optimal fluoride concentration for consumption during the mineralization phase of the primary teeth could result in daily fluoride intake above 0.07 mg F/kg body weight/day. Therefore, the consumption of these products, especially when reconstituted with optimally fluoridated water, could increase the risk of developing dental fluorosis.

Fluorides↗
PubMed2003

Effect of nucleotides on diarrhea and immune responses in healthy term infants in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to compare the effects of an infant formula fortified with nucleotides (NF) with those of a control formula (CF) on the incidence of diarrhea, respiratory tract infections (RTIs), and immune responses in healthy term infants. METHODS: This 12-month, double-blind study was conducted on 1- to 7-day-old infants randomized to receive NF or CF exclusively until 12 weeks of age, and fed the assigned formula with solid food until 12 months. NF was supplemented with 72 mg/L of nucleotides, based on the total potentially available nucleotide content of human milk. Subjects were evaluated within 1 week of birth, at 4 weeks, and every 4 weeks thereafter until 48 weeks of age. The primary outcome variable was the incidence of diarrhea. Secondary variables included RTIs, serum immunoglobulin concentrations, and response to hepatitis B vaccine. RESULTS: Compared with subjects fed CF (n = 170), those fed NF (n = 166) had a trend toward reduced risk of diarrhea from 8 to 48 weeks of age and a significantly lower risk of 25.4% (P = 0.05) between 8 and 28 weeks. NF subjects had significantly higher serum immunoglobulin A concentrations ( P < 0.05) throughout the 48-week study. The NF group had an increased risk of upper RTIs, the same incidence of lower RTIs, and the same antibody response to hepatitis B vaccination as the CF group, based on one-sided tests. Growth was normal in both groups, and no adverse events were considered to be formula-related. CONCLUSIONS: Healthy term infants from 8 to 28 weeks of life are less likely to experience diarrhea and have higher serum immunoglobulin A concentrations with NF compared with formula without added nucleotides.

Bottle Feeding↗
PubMed2006

Comparison of media for the isolation of Enterobacter sakazakii.

Enterobacter sakazakii is associated with neonatal infections and is occasionally present at low levels (<1 CFU/g) in powdered infant formula milk (IFM). It has been previously reported that some E. sakazakii strains do not grow in standard media for Enterobacteriaceae and coliform bacteria; therefore, a reliable method is needed for recovery of the organism. Three E. sakazakii enrichment broths-Enterobacteriaceae enrichment broth (EE), E. sakazakii selective broth (ESSB), and modified lauryl sulfate broth (mLST)-were compared with a novel broth designed for maximum recovery of E. sakazakii, E. sakazakii enrichment broth (ESE). One hundred seventy-seven strains (100%) grew in ESE, whereas between 2 and 6% of strains did not grow in EE, mLST, or ESSB. E. sakazakii possesses alpha-glucosidase activity, and a number of selective, chromogenic agars for E. sakazakii isolation based on this enzyme have been developed. E. sakazakii isolation agar produced fewer false-positive colonies than did Druggan-Forsythe-Iversen agar. However, the latter supported the growth of more E. sakazakii strains. It was also determined that 2% of E. sakazakii strains did not produce yellow pigmentation on tryptone soya agar at 25 degrees C, a characteristic frequently cited in the identification of E. sakazakii. The recovery of desiccated E. sakazakii (0.2 to 2000 CFU/25 g) from powdered IFM in the presence of a competing flora was determined with various enrichment broths and differential selective media. Current media designed for the isolation and presumptive identification of E. sakazakii do not support the growth of all currently known E. sakazakii phenotypes; therefore, improvements in the proposed methods are desirable.

Agar↗
PubMed2005

Biofilm formation, extracellular polysaccharide production, and cell-to-cell signaling in various Enterobacter sakazakii strains: aspects promoting environmental persistence.

Enterobacter sakazakii is considered an opportunistic pathogen and has been implicated in food-associated cases of meningitis or enteritis, especially in neonates and infants. The organism has been detected in various types of food and in food production units, but so far only powdered infant formula has been linked to outbreaks of disease. Survival and persistence in such environments requires the ability to adapt to high osmotic potentials and/or dry conditions. Fifty-six E. sakazakii strains were evaluated for several features important for persistence and survival: (i) biofilm formation and the putative production of cellulose as one of the components of the extracellular matrix, (ii) adherence to hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces, (iii) the production of extracellular polysaccharides, and (iv) the ability of E. sakazakii to produce cell-to-cell signaling molecules. Pellicle and flock formation was observed in 21 of the strains grown in Luria-Bertani broth and in 44 of the strains grown in brain heart infusion broth. Calcofluor-stained fibrils, observed microscopically in every (fragile or rigid) pellicle, suggested the presence of cellulose as an extracellular compound in this type of biofilm. Twelve isolates did not form any pellicle or flocks under either condition. Twenty-three of the isolates exhibited the potential to adhere to glass surfaces in shaken cultures, and 33 strains showed biofilm formation at the air-solid interface of polyvinyl chloride microtiter wells. Sixteen isolates adhered to both surfaces. Twenty-four of the isolates tested produced a milky, viscous mass, considered as extracellular polysaccharide. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of the polysaccharide revealed the presence of glucose, galactose, fucose, and glucuronic acid. Thin-layer chromatography analyses performed on ethyl acetate extracts of cell-free supernatants of the 56 strains indicated the presence of two different types of acylated homoserine lactones (3-oxo-C6-HSL and 3-oxo-C8-HSL). These findings illustrate the ability of E. sakazakii to produce cell-to-cell signaling molecules.

Bacterial Adhesion↗
PubMed2005

Effects of chronic copper exposure during early life in rhesus monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Whether infants regulate copper absorption and the potential effects of excess copper in early life remain poorly defined. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to assess copper retention, liver copper content, and liver function in infant rhesus monkeys fed infant formula containing 6.6 mg Cu/L. DESIGN: From birth to 5 mo of age, infant rhesus monkeys were fed formula that was supplemented with copper (0.6 mg Cu/L; n = 5) or not supplemented (n = 4). In all animals, weight and crown-rump length (by anthropometry), hemoglobin, hematocrit, plasma ceruloplasmin activity, and zinc and copper concentrations were measured monthly (birth to 6 mo) and at 8 and 12 mo. When the animals were 1, 5, and 8 mo old, liver copper and metallothionein concentrations, liver histology (by light and electron microscopy), and the number of Kupffer cells were assessed, and 67Cu retention was measured. Liver function was assessed by measurement of plasma alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, and alkaline phosphatase activities and protein, albumin, bilirubin, and blood urea nitrogen concentrations. RESULTS: 67Cu retention was 19.2% and 10.9% after 1 and 5 mo of copper treatment, respectively, compared with approximately 75% in controls at age 2 mo. At age 8 mo, 67Cu retention was 22.9% in copper-treated animals and 31.5% in controls. Liver histology remained normal by light microscopy, with mild ultrastructural signs of cell damage at 5 mo. Liver copper concentration was 4711, 1139, and 498 microg/g dry tissue at 1, 5, and 8 mo, respectively, in copper-treated animals and 250 microg/g at 2 mo in controls. Measurements could not be completed in all animals. CONCLUSIONS: No clinical evidence of copper toxicity was observed. Copper absorption was down-regulated; increases in liver copper content at ages 1 and 5 mo did not result in histologic damage. Ultrastructural changes at age 5 mo could signal early cellular damage.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1986

Milk protein intake in the term infant. I. Metabolic responses and effects on growth.

Thirty healthy term infants were studied during the three first months of life. The infants were divided into three feeding groups consisting of 10 infants in each. The feeding regimens were: human milk by breast feeding, a formula (F-I) containing 1.2 g/100 ml of protein and a control formula (F-II) containing 1.6 g protein/100 ml. Both formulas were whey predominant and isocaloric. Protein intake was significantly higher with formula F-II when compared to the human milk group and to formula F-I. No significant differences with respect to weight, length and head circumference were found among the groups, but the rate of growth between 2 to 12 weeks was higher in the control formula (F-II) group. Serum albumin concentrations were normal and similar in all feeding groups. Blood urea nitrogen and urine total nitrogen concentration was significantly lower in the low protein formula I group when compared to the control formula II. After the fourth week of life the low protein formula infants had similar blood urea nitrogen and urine nitrogen concentrations as those of the breast-fed infants. The results indicate that current formulas in use provide excessive protein intakes after the first months of life.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed1987

Lipid metabolism in premature infants.

Fats provide 40-50% of the total calories in human milk or infant formula. The milk secreted by mothers of preterm infants differs in fat composition from that of mothers of full-term infants in having higher levels of medium chain fatty acids (C12, C14) throughout the first 3 months of lactation, and higher levels of long chain polyenoic fatty acids during the first 3 months of lactation. These differences in composition benefit the preterm infant by providing higher levels of rapidly absorbed medium chain fatty acids and long chain polyenoic fatty acids needed for brain development. Fat digestion: The low levels of pancreatic lipase and bile salts in the preterm infant are compensated for by lipolysis in the stomach by lingual and gastric lipase and by the intestinal hydrolysis of fat through the action of human milk bile salt-stimulated lipase. Fat digestion is efficient in the preterm infant who absorbs about 80-90% of ingested fat. Lipid clearing from the circulation depends upon the activity of the enzymes lipoprotein lipase, hepatic lipase, and lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase. The activity of these enzymes is lower or equal to that of term infants, depending upon the degree of prematurity and the nutritional regimen, especially in parenterally fed infants.

Fatty Acids↗
PubMed1982

Nutrient overages and methodology trends.

Because infant formula provides the sole dietary intake for many infants, it is important that the nutrient composition be carefully controlled. Establishing nutrient levels depends on laboratory testing. Current testing methods have certain limitations, some of which can be overcome by modern trends in analytical technology.

Humans↗
PubMed1993

The duration of breast-feeding: how is it affected by biological, sociodemographic, health sector, and food industry factors?

Breast-feeding duration has important effects on a wide array of demographic and maternal and infant health outcomes. This study uses a discrete-time logit hazards model to explore the relationship of biological, sociodemographic, health sector, and food industry practices on the duration of full and partial breast-feeding in a sample of more than 2,600 infants from the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey. Food industry and health sector practices (such as distribution of free samples of infant formula), the mother's perception of being pregnant, infant fatness, and a set of standard sociodemographic factors all affect breast-feeding duration significantly.

Body Height↗
PubMed1992

Comparison of the residual allergenic activity of six different hydrolyzed protein formulas.

The residual allergenic activity of protein hydrolysates contained in marketed "hypoallergenic" infant formulas can be determined both by in vivo methods (skin prick tests, provocation tests) and by in vitro methods (radioallergosorbent test, radioallergosorbent inhibition, crossed radioimmunoelectrophoresis, basophil histamine release). In general, whey hydrolysates containing a high percentage of larger peptides have the highest capacity to induce positive skin test and provocation test results, and to bind to human serum IgE antibodies of cow milk-sensitive children. Casein hydrolysates appear to have very little residual allergenic activity. Before hypoallergenic formulas are prescribed for cow milk-sensitive children, individual testing (e.g., skin test, challenge tests) is recommended.

Child↗
PubMed1979

Carnitine content of liquid formulas and special diets.

Radioisotopic analyses for carnitine content were done on infant formula, formulas for tube feeding, food supplements, and chemically defined diets. The carnitine content of the diets depend on the protein source. Products whose main protein source is soy protein isolate, casein, or egg white solids contain 4 nmole carnitine per milliliter or less, with most of them containing undetectable amounts of carnitine. Products based on milk or beef contain 50 to 656 nmole carnitine per milliliter. The daily requirement of the body for carnitine is unknown. Evidence is discussed that indicates that the possible use of carnitine as a supplement to formula diets intended for long-term care needs to be considered.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Plasma zinc and copper levels of infants fed different milk formulas.

The plasma zinc and copper levels of 32 full-term healthy infants, aged 3-4 months, using different infant formulas, were measured. The plasma zinc levels of infants using soy formula (45.1 +/- 19.1 micrograms/dl) and iron-fortified cow's milk formula (61.6 +/- 12.9 micrograms/dl) were significantly lower than those of the infants using cow's milk formula not fortified with iron (77.5 +/- 13.4 micrograms/dl). The plasma copper levels of the infants using the different formulas were not significantly different from each other. Fortification of infant formulas with high levels of iron may reduce the zinc absorption from such formulas.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Hyponatremic seizures secondary to oral water intoxication in infancy: association with commercial bottled drinking water.

In recent years, hyponatremic seizures resulting from water intoxication have been reported in the United States with an increasing frequency that some have likened to an epidemic. Infants of parents living in poverty and uninformed of the risks of feeding fluids other than infant formula to their babies are particularly at risk. Young infants with vomiting and diarrhea are especially prone to developing hyponatremia if fed fluids lacking sufficient sodium, but even those who are otherwise well may develop symptomatic hyponatremia as a result of being fed excess solute-free water. Most often tap water, either in the form of supplemental feedings or overly dilute formula, has been given in excessive amounts over relatively short periods of time. Less frequently, water in other forms such as juice, soda, or tea has been implicated. This report includes the cases of two infants treated at our institution for hyponatremic seizures and water intoxication after being fed with the same bottled drinking water product marketed for use in infants. The medical records of all infants </=1 year of age admitted to our institution over 10 years with the diagnosis of hyponatremic seizures were also reviewed.

Beverages↗
PubMed1998

Randomised trial of early diet in preterm babies and later intelligence quotient.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether perinatal nutrition influences cognitive function at 7 1/2 - 8 years in children born preterm. DESIGN: Randomised, blinded nutritional intervention trial. Blinded follow up at 7 1/2 - 8 years. SETTING: Intervention phase in two neonatal units; follow up in a clinic or school setting. SUBJECTS: 424 preterm infants who weighed under 1850 g at birth; 360 of those who survived were tested at 7 1/2 - 8 years. INTERVENTIONS: Standard infant formula versus nutrient enriched preterm formula randomly assigned as sole diet (trial A) or supplements to maternal milk (trial B) fed for a mean of 1 month. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Intelligence quotient (IQ) at 7 1/2 - 8 years with abbreviated Weschler intelligence scale for children (revised). RESULTS: There was a major sex difference in the impact of diet. At 7 1/2 - 8 years boys previously fed standard versus preterm formula as sole diet had a 12.2 point disadvantage (95% confidence interval 3.7 to 20.6; P<0.01) in verbal IQ. In those with highest intakes of trial diets corresponding figures were 9.5 point disadvantage and 14.4 point disadvantage in overall IQ (1.2 to 17.7; P<0.05) and verbal IQ (5.7 to 23.2; P<0.01). Consequently, more infants fed term formula had low verbal IQ (<85): 31% versus 14% for both sexes (P=0.02) and 47% versus 13% in boys P=0.009). There was a higher incidence of cerebral palsy in those fed term formula; exclusion of such children did not alter the findings. CONCLUSIONS: Preterm infants are vulnerable to suboptimal early nutrition in terms of their cognitive performance--notably, language based skills--at 7 1/2 - 8 years, when cognitive scores are highly predictive of adult ones. Our data on cerebral palsy generate a new hypothesis that suboptimal nutritional management during a critical or plastic early period of rapid brain growth could impair functional compensation in those sustaining an earlier brain insult. Cognitive function, notably in males, may be permanently impaired by suboptimal neonatal nutrition.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed2005

A follow-up study of nutrient intake, nutritional status, and growth in infants with cow milk allergy fed either a soy formula or an extensively hydrolyzed whey formula.

BACKGROUND: Infants with cow milk allergy (CMA) are reported to have reduced growth and special nutritional needs. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to compare nutrient intake, nutritional status, and growth in infants with CMA who were fed either a soy formula or an extensively hydrolyzed whey formula. DESIGN: The study group comprised 168 double-blind challenge-proven infants with CMA. Eighty-four of the infants were fed a soy formula (mean starting age: 7.8 mo), and the other 84 infants were fed an extensively hydrolyzed whey formula (mean starting age: 7.5 mo). RESULTS: The length (SD score) of the infants was close to the mean Finnish reference growth by age 2 y in both groups. Weight-for-length measurements continued to reach the 50th percentile by age 4 y in both study groups. The mean nutrient intake followed the recommended intake in both groups, although most of the infants were supplemented with calcium and vitamin D. The observed serum transferrin receptor concentrations indicated a greater iron inadequacy in the tissue of infants in the soy formula group than in the hydrolyzed whey formula group (P = 0.08). However, there were no significant differences between the groups either in the percentages of abnormally low laboratory values (mean cell volume, hemoglobin, zinc, and ferritin) or in the percentages of high alkaline phosphatase activity, which indicates the comparable safety and effectiveness of the formulas studied. CONCLUSIONS: Both nutritional status and growth were well within reference values in the 2 groups, and the selection of a formula can largely be made on the basis of infant tolerance to the formulas.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Absorption of medium chain triglycerides in the stomach of the human infant.

Following previous observations that medium chain triglycerides (MCT) are absorbed from the stomach of suckling rats, this study was devoted to studying absorption of MCTs in human infants. Four groups of patients were studied: (a) infants suffering from pyloric stenosis, (b) premature infants, (c) children suffering from cystic fibrosis, (d) infants with miscellaneous conditions. Infant formulae with known amounts of MCT were introduced by gastric tube and samples were removed at 0, 20, 40, and 60 min. In patients with pyloric stenosis there was an 18.1% decrease in MCT during the first 20 min. No significant changes in MCT took place during the subsequent 40 min. A similar response was observed in the group of premature infants. Older infants with miscellaneous diagnoses and children with cystic fibrosis showed an even rate of disappearance of MCT during the 60-min test period, and approximately 30% of the original MCTs present disappeared during this period. We conclude that MCTs are absorbed in the stomach of infants and children. Absorption appears to improve with age. Because MCT are an important constituent of formulae for premature infants and children with defects of small intestinal digestion and absorption of fat, these observations have practical implications.

Cystic Fibrosis↗
PubMed1983

Macromineral balances in premature infants fed their own mothers' milk or formula.

The premature infant's own mother's milk (preterm milk) and modified infant formula (SMA, 67 and 80 kcal/dl) were fed to paired groups of seven infants, all of whom were of very low birth weight (VLBW) (less than 1.3 kg) and were studied during the first month of life. Sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus status was compared. The apparent retention of sodium from their mother's milk paralleled intrauterine retention rates and was greater than retention from SMA formula (P less than 0.01) during the first two weeks of life. However, when the formula was supplemented with NaHCO3 to intakes of 2.7 mmol Na/kg/24 hr after week 2, the infants retained adequate amounts of sodium. Potassium retention was similar to intrauterine retention rates in both groups throughout the four postnatal weeks. Magnesium intake, but not retention, was consistently higher in the group fed SMA (P less than 0.01), and intrauterine retention rates were achieved only in the group given formula. Calcium and phosphorus intakes from SMA were also higher (P less than 0.01) than from human milk. However, retention of calcium and phosphorus in both groups did not meet intrauterine retention rates, and hypophosphatemia developed in infants who received their mothers' milk. Growth in length and head circumference in both groups approximated intrauterine growth rates. If it is assumed that body composition of the growing VLBW infants should be similar to the composition of the fetus at corresponding gestational ages, then their nutrient requirements should be based on knowledge of intrauterine nutrient accretion rates. Based on this premise, we conclude that, for the growing VLBW infant, early maternal milk provided for sufficient retention of sodium, chloride, and potassium during the first four postnatal weeks. Neither human preterm milk nor SMA supplied adequate calcium and phosphorus for the growing VLBW infant.

Body Composition↗